The Psychology of Learning and Memory

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Chapter 1

• The Psychology of Learning and Memory

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1.1 The Philosophy of Mind
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1.1 The Philosophy of Mind

• Learning and Memory in Everyday LifeTop Ten Tips
  for a Better Memory
• Aristotle and Associationism
• Descartes and Dualism
• John Locke and Empiricism
• William James and Association

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Learning and Memory

• Learningthe process by which behavioral changes
  result from experience.
• Memorythe record of our past experiences
  acquired through learning.

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Learning and Memory in Everyday Life Top Top Ten
Tips for a Better Memory

1. Pay full attention during learning.
2. Create associations between new and old material.
3. Generate meaningful images.
4. Practice facts and skills.

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Learning and Memory in Everyday Life Top Top Ten
Tips for a Better Memory

1. Read material aloud and write it out.
2. Use memory aids (post-it notes, calendars, or
   electronic schedulers).
3. Try to remember when and where you first learned
   the material.

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Learning and Memory in Everyday Life Top Top Ten
Tips for a Better Memory

1. Sleep well to increase concentration and
   facilitate memory storage.
2. Create a poem or song to learn a string of random
   information.
3. If blocked, relax and turn to something else.

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Aristotle and Associationism

• Aristotle (384322 BC)
• Principles of associationismmemory requires
  linkages between pairs of events, sensations,
  ideas.
• Contiguity
• Nearness in time and space
• Frequency
• Similarity

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Descartes and Dualism

• Descartes (15061650)
• Believed in dualismimmaterial mind and material
  body are separate entities, governed by their own
  laws.
• The body works as a machine with a fixed
  response (reflex) to an external sensory event
  (stimulus).

Corbis
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John Locke and Empiricism

• John Locke (16321704)
• Held empiricist viewall knowledge results from
  experience alone.
• Children are blank slate
• All have equal potential for knowledge.
• The mind passively combines simple ideas into
  complex ideas.

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William James and Association

• William James (18421910)
• Authored Principles of Psychology (1890)
• Worldwide psychology text for many decades
• Believed in associationism
• Memory of an event has many components.
• A second event may be remembered due to an
  overlap of components.

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William James Memory Model
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1.1 Interim Summary

• Learning changes in behavior through
  experience.
• Memory record of past experiences acquired
  through learning.
• Learning and memory no single process for is a
  single cohesive process.
• Many kinds of memory, many ways to learn.

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1.1 Interim Summary

• Associationists memory depends on links between
  events, sensations, ideas.
• Aristotle three key association principles.
• Contiguity, frequency, similarity
• James remembering involves learning links
  between event components.
• Activation of one component could activate
  others.
• Linkage between common components.

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1.1 Interim Summary

• Empiricists we are born blank slates.
• All knowledge comes from experience.
• Aristotle, Locke, Watson
• Nativists bulk of knowledge is inborn.
• Plato, Descartes, Galton
• Debate continues today.
• Nature versus nurture
• Nature (genes) is modified by experience.

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1.1 Interim Summary

• Descartes dualist
• Mind and body are separate.
• Body is a machine to be understood through
  mechanical principles.
• Reflex pathway sensory stimulus to motor
  response.
• Locke empiricist
• All humans born with equal potential for
  knowledge and success (deserve equal opportunity).

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1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection
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1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection

• Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents of Evolution
• Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural
  Selection
• Francis Galton Variability of Nature
• Unsolved MysteriesCan Learning Influence
  Evolution?

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Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents of Evolution

• Evolutionchange in a species over time
• Early Proponents
• Erasmus Darwin (17311892) Personal physician to
  King George III of England
• Grandfather of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton
• Jean-Baptiste Lamark (17441829) French
  naturalist
• Proposed (falsely) that an animal can acquire a
  trait from experience and pass it to progeny.

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Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural
Selection

• Charles Darwin (18091882)
• Amateur naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle
• Found beak variation in finches that matched
  survival on its isolated Galápagos island

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Darwins Three Criteria for Traits to Evolve
through Natural Selection
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Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural
Selection

• Proposed theory of natural selection.
• Species evolve when a trait is inheritable, can
  vary, and makes individual more fit for
  survival and reproduction.
• Traits can be physical or behavioral
• Authored The Origin of Species (1859)
• Proposes a similar ancestor for man and ape
• Gives rise to evolutionary psychology (study
  behavioral evolution through natural selection).
• Learning is integral to survival.

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Francis Galton Variability of Nature

• Francis Galton (18221911)
• Charles Darwin (cousin) inspired Galtons study
  of human individual differences.
• Fascinated by the physically and mentally fittest
• Found that attributes (e.g., height, blood
  pressure, memory skills) followed a normal
  distribution, a bell-shaped curve.
• Began eugenics movement (encouraged procreation
  among societys fittest)

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Francis Galton Variability of Nature

• Founder of modern statistics developed
  statistical concepts like
• Hypothesisan observation that can be tested
• Correlational studytwo variables tend to vary
  together
• Experimental group (receives treatment) versus
  control group (no treatment)
• Problem Galtons research did not control for
  confounds (extraneous variables).

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Unsolved MysteriesCan Learning Influence
Evolution?

• Evolution change in a species over time
• Learning a process of adaptation and
  improvement
• View learning as an adaptive process that
  fine-tunes what evolution began.

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1.2 Interim Summary

• Theory of evolution change over time.
• New traits passed from one generation to the
  next.
• Charles Darwin natural selection
• Survival of the fittest mechanism for
  evolution.
• Trait evolution requires inheritability, natural
  variation, relevance to survival.
• Galton all natural abilities are inherited.
• Developed much of modern statistics and
  experimental methodology.

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1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology
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1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology

• Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments
• Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning
• Edward Thorndike Law of Effect

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Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments

• Hermann Ebbinghaus (18501909)
• Completed first experiments on human memory (used
  himself as sole participant).
• Especially interested in forgetting (memory
  deterioration over time).
• Examined how long it took him to relearn a
  previously learned list.
• Established retention curve (percentage time
  saved to relearn list).

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Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments

• Unlike Galton, designed experiments that examined
  hypothesis validity.
• Dependent variablea studys manipulated factor
• Number of nonsense syllables recalled
• Independent variableobserved factor whose change
  is measured
• Delay between learning and relearning list

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Limitations to Ebbinghaus Research

• Conducted research only on himself.
• As the participant, he knew the manipulated
  variables (subject bias).
• As the researcher, he knew the desired outcome
  (experimenter bias).
• Modern research avoids with
• Blind designparticipant unaware of hypothesis
• Double-blind designboth participant and
  experimenter unaware of hypothesis (e.g.,
  research with placebo).

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Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning

• Ivan Pavlov (18491936)
• Russian physiologist studies of dog digestion
  lead to studies on animal learning
• Classical conditioninglearning that one stimulus
  predicts another
• Conditioned stimulus (bell) predicts
  unconditioned stimulus (food)
• Extinctionweakening a learned response
• Pairing bell with no food
• Generalizationsimilar sounds produce similar
  conditioned responses

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Pavlov and Learning Experiments
(a)The Granger Collection, New York / (b) Adapted
from Allen et al., 2002.
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Edward Thorndike Law of Effect

• Edward Thorndike (18741949)
• Research on cats trial-and-error learning to
  escape puzzle box.
• Instrumental conditioningbehavior determines
  whether consequence will occur.
• Law of effectresponses with desirable
  consequences increase future response
• In contrast, responses with undesirable
  consequences decrease future response.

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1.3 Interim Summary

• Ebbinghaus studied memorization of nonsense
  syllables.
• Developed basic experimental techniques to study
  human memory and forgetting.
• Pavlov classical conditioning
• Studied how animals learn that an initially
  neutral stimulus can predict an upcoming event.

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1.3 Interim Summary

• Thorndike animal behavior is modified by
  consequences (reward or punishment).
• Puzzle boxes
• Law of effectthe probability of a behavioral
  response increases or decreases depending on the
  consequences it elicits.

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1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism
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1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism

• John Watson and Behaviorism
• Clark Hull and Mathematical Models of Learning
• B. F. Skinner Radical Behaviorism
• Edward Tolman Cognitive Maps

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John Watson and Behaviorism

• John Watson (18781958)
• Founded behaviorismstudy is restricted to
  observable behaviors.
• Studied maze learning in rats
• Examined rat performance motivation eliminated
  sensory stimuli.
• Argued that rats learned automatic motor habits
  (ability to navigate maze), independent of
  external sensory cues.

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John Watson and Behaviorism

• Published behaviorist manifesto in
  Psychological Review (1913)
• Psychology is a purely objective experimental
  branch of natural science whose goal is
  prediction and control of behavior.
• By 1920s, behaviorism dominates psychology of
  learning.

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John Watson and Behaviorism

• Strong empiricist emphasized experience
  (nurture) in determining behavior and
  capabilities.
• Career ends in scandal.
• After scandal, applied learning principles to
  advertising.

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Clark Hull and Mathematical Models of Learning

• Clark Hull (18841952)
• Tried to develop a comprehensive mathematical
  model of animal learning.
• Variables number of learning trials, frequency,
  motivation, incentive value of reward
• Followers developed equations to describe basic
  components of learning.
• Ideas abandoned cannot reduce all learning
  factors to a single equation.

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B. F. Skinner Radical Behaviorism

• B. F. Skinner (19041990)
• Developed Skinner box.
• Operant conditioning chamber for automated
  response learning
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules
• Authored Walden Two (1948) Beyond Freedom and
  Dignity (1971).
• Later work advocates radical behaviorism
  consciousness and free will are illusions.

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Edward Tolman Cognitive Maps

• Edward Tolman (18861959)
• All behavior is intrinsically motivated.
• Rats form cognitive mapsinternal representations
  of external worlds layout.
• Will find alternate paths to food when learned
  path blocked (find food from new start point).
• Latent learninglearning happens in the absence
  of training or consequence.
• Laid groundwork for cognitive studies of learning.

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Tolmans Cognitive Maps in Rats
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Limitation of Behaviorism

• Behaviorism failed to explain human cognitive
  abilities
• e.g., language, perception, reasoning, memory
• Cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of
  higher-level human abilities
• e.g., thinking, language, reasoning
• Turns away from animal research.

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1.4 Interim Summary

• Behaviorists say psychology should be the study
  of observable behaviors.
• Watson sensory-deprivation studies
• Show how rats learn maze navigation.
• Skinner radical behaviorism
• Consciousness and free will are illusions.
• Cognitive functions (e.g, language) are a series
  of learned stimulusresponse associations.

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1.4 Interim Summary

• Tolman studied how animals use goals.
• Believed rats could form cognitive maps.
• Some learning (i.e., latent learning) occurs
  without explicit training or observable response.

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1.5 The Cognitive Approach
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1.5 The Cognitive Approach

• W. K. Estes and Mathematical Psychology
• Gordon Bower Learning by Insight
• George Miller and Information Theory
• Herbert Simon and Symbol-Manipulation Models
• David Rumelhart and Connectionist Models

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W. K. Estes and Mathematical Psychology

• Early work with B. F. Skinner (together they
  develop conditioned emotional response to study
  learned fear).
• Later, found new methods to interpret learning.
• Built on Hulls mathematical modeling approach.
• Stimulus sampling theory explained randomness in
  learning.
• Each stimulus has many elements only a random
  sample is associated in each trial.

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Estes Stimulus-Response Models
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W. K. Estes and Mathematical Psychology

• Helped establish mathematical psychology.
• Use of mathematical equations to describe laws of
  learning and memory.

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Gordon Bower Learning by Insight

• Interested in mathematical psychology and insight
  learning.
• A solution to a problem comes to individuals on
  different trials.
• Individual performance, not just group
  performance, is important.
• Influential educator and mentor.

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Bowers Learning by Insight
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George Miller and Information Theory

• Measured human capacity of short-term memory for
  digits.
• Found that the human mind has a limited capacity
  for digits (digit span).
• Magic number 7 digits, plus or minus 2
• Information theory helps measure limits.
• Mathematical theory of communication
• Applies to a variety of capabilities (e.g.,
  short-term memory, range of judgments).

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Herbert Simon and Symbol-Manipulation Models

• Herbert Simon (19162001)
• A founder of artificial intelligence (AI)
• Helped develop a new computational approach to
  memory and cognition.
• To study cognition, understand how the mind
  manipulates symbols (internal representations of
  concepts, qualities, ideas).

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Herbert Simon and Symbol-Manipulation Models

• Simon and Newells Symbol-manipulation models
• Rules and procedures to manipulate, search,
  update symbols and associations models for
  learning and memory.
• Began movement to use computer as a metaphor for
  human mind to study thinking, reasoning, memory.

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Symbol-Manipulation Model of Memory
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David Rumelhart and Connectionist Models

• With James McClelland, designed connectionist
  models.
• Explain cognition as networks of uninformed,
  unlabeled connections between nodes (simple
  processing units).
• Distributed representations
• Models help integrate neuroscience with
  psychology.

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Distributed Representations
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1.5 Interim Summary

• Cognitive psychologists study higher mental
  processes not explained by behaviorism.
• Bower learning is not incremental.
• Involves all-or-none moments of sudden insight.
• Miller studied learning and memory using
  mathematical models.
• Magic number 7 demonstrated limits on absolute
  judgments and memory capacity.

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1.5 Interim Summary

• Mathematical psychology equations describe laws
  of learning and memory.
• Hull tried to find one equation to describe all
  learning variables.
• Followers try to develop several equations for
  the basic components of learning.
• Estes used mathematical psychology to describe
  how randomness of perception affects memory and
  generalization.

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1.5 Interim Summary

• Simon and Newell used computers in studies.
• Metaphor for brain.
• Tool for implementing models of how mind learns
  and manipulates symbols.
• Rumelhart and colleagues focused on connectionist
  models of memory/cognition.
• Networks of simple processing units.
• Information a pattern of activity across many
  nodes.