Title: Grice, his critics, and pragmatics
1Grice, his critics, and pragmatics
- Rong Chen
- California State University
- San Bernardino, USA
2Pragmatics then
- Morris 1938 syntax, semantics, pragmatics
-
- Pragmatics anything else, things that do not
fit into syntax or semantics
3Pragmatics now
- Pragmatics has edged its way towards the center,
embraced by at least some interested in
syntaxe.g. functionalists, cognitivistsand many
in semantics and language philosophy, and are
still going strong, attracting more and more
practitioners by the day.
4Who is/are responsible?
- Oxonian run-of-the-mill-language philosophers
Austin and students Searle and Grice. - According to at least one scholar, Grice is the
man Not only is Grices account highly
illuminating, it is also, as far as I know, the
only published attempt ever made by a philosopher
or anyone else to say precisely and completely
what it is for someone to mean something
(Schiffer 1972 7). - But that is also THEN, in 1972. How about NOW,
in 2005?
5The presence of Grice
- Cooperative Principle, maxims, implicature have
become received terms one can use them without
having to define them. - (A biased and unscientific survey Cited in 221
out of 300 articles and 78 out of 100 books on my
shelf.)
6So, we
- Look back at Grices critics in the past few
decades - Compare CP with Relevance Theory (henceforth RT).
7Grice is, well, put simply, wrong.
- Are we as cooperative as Grice claims? (Gandy
1989, Kasher 1976, Sampson 1976). - Bargaining in a free market buyer wants to spend
as little as possible, seller wants to get as
much as possible. Goals are diametrically
opposite.
8A possible response
- They do talk to each other. Why?
- Even in a situation like this, there seems to
exist a common goal that forces both parties to
cooperate, that in order for each to get what
she wants, a deal has to be made.
9Another example
- Cross-examination in court, where the witness has
no motivation to cooperate. - But does she? Shes made to swear with her hands
on the book. She would be punished by law if she
doesnt. - What does that suggest?
10The world changes but the maxims are fixed
(Sampson 1976).
- But the maxims seemed to have held up through the
ages (Schroeder, in preparation). - In the Chinese context chit-chat on a train. 30
years ago vs. now. - The specific requirement may change, the maxims
seem to remain.
11How do we know speakers detect violation?
- Native speakers failure to understand the
intention or read an implicature when it is not
there. - Second or foreign language learners
-
12Heard in an auto mechanics shop
- C So, what do you think should be done?
- M I would have it fixed right away. Its not
- something you want to wait.
- C Please dont do it. I have to arrange my
- finances first.
13Universality of maxims (Keenan 1974)
- Members of Malagasy society regularly provide
less information than is required - A Where is your mother?
- B Shes either in the house or at the market.
- It has been disputed by many (Green 1989 Brown
Levinson 1987 Chen 1990, 1993), and Keenan may
have admitted her own misunderstanding of Grice
(Brown and Levinson 1987). But she still gets
cited, until this day (Mooney 2004903)
14Old ideas in new package?
- The Gricean maxims are Nothing less than the
rules of classical rhetoric adapted to the modern
position of speech (Morpugo-Tagliabue 1981). - Definition of a good communicator. (Wilson and
Sperper 1979, quoted in Kaufer 1981).
15Replacing Grice
- Kempson 1975, but see Kiefer 1979
- Lakoff 1977. but see Lakoff 1987
- Gazdar 1977, but see Kiefer 1979
- Maxims of Communication (Leudar and Browning
1988)
16Patching Grice
- Incorporation of Mutual knowledge (Chen 1990,
1993). - Maxims of joking (Grices maxims contextualized
for the joke genre (Attardo 1990). - Incorporation of Levinsons activity types
(Mooney 2004).
17We now compare CP with RT
- Without a doubt, Sperber and Wilsons RT has
proven to be the most serious competitor to
Grices CP. - We will compare the two in terms of theoretical
assumptions, basic claims, as well as how well
each handles a particular type of communication.
18Sperber and Wilsons RT
- Optimal relevance something being said in such a
way that it costs the least effort to process and
produces the most effect. - In ostensive communication, speakers try to be
optimally relevant. -
- When something is said in such a way that it
costs more than the least effort for
processing, the hearer looks around for
interpretations that justify the additional
effort, which is often what is not said but can
be arrived at by considering contextual factors.
19A crude and possibly unjust comparison
CP RT
Assumption Cooperation Optimal relevance
Beyond the baseline Violation of maxims More than the least effort
That extra meaning Implicature Cognitive effect implicature
20An example
A How do you like my new suit?
B1 It looks silly.
21What would each say?
- RT B1 requires little (least?) effort and
produces enough contextual effect for the hearer.
- CP B1 observes all maxims.
22What if B says something different?
A How do you like my new suit?
B2 I really appreciate your tailors sense of
humor.
23A. What do you think of my new suit? B2. I
really appreciate your tailors sense of humor.
- 1. Bs utterance requires more than the least
effort (TRIGGER). - 2. Assuming that B strives for optimal relevance,
he must have intended additional contextual
effect (ASSUMPTION). - 3. Based on other contextual factors, he must
mean that As suit is funny, that he doesnt
think highly of it (ARRIVING AT CONTEXTUAL
EFFECT, IMPLICTURE).
1. B1 violates the Maxim of Relation (TRIGGER) 2.
Assuming that B has no reason to cooperate, he
must have meant something else
(ASSUMPTION) 3. Based on what he says as well as
the context, he must mean that As suit looks
funny and that he doesnt think highly of it.
(ARRIVING AT IMPLICUTURE).
24RT and CP similar or different?
- SIMILARITY
- Three major steps
- Trigger
- Using assumption
- Getting implicature
- DIFFERENCE
- In terms of details
- In terms of terminology
25A. What do you think of my new suit?B1. It
looks silly. B2. I really appreciate your
tailors sense of humor.
- RT B1 and B2 are both relevant.
- B1 is relevant by costing the least effort.
- B2 is relevant by producing more effect that
justifies the additional effort needed to
process. - Does the theory tell us which is more relevant?
If they are equally relevant, arent we missing
something here?
- CP B1 and B2 are both cooperative utterances but
differing in important ways - B1 cooperates by following the maxims.
- B2 cooperates by breaching at least one of
- them.
26Irony
What lovely weather were having
27Its pouring.A. What lovely weather were
having!
- As ironic utterance is echoic (echoing, for
instance, a weather forecaster.) - The process of understanding is no different from
that of a non-ironic utterance. - The hearer does not have to reject the literal
meaning of the utterance the speaker does not
mean the opposite of what is said. She means
precisely what is said.
- A violation of Quality (Grice) for the purpose
of - expressiveness and possibly of politeness
- (Chen 1992).
- The hearer realizes the violation, rejects the
- literal meaning as being incongruent with
- context, and arrives at the intended meaning
- via implicature.
28The key does the literal meaning have to be
rejected?
Maybe yes
Evidence?
Just click!
29- Speakers DO miss ironytry Swifts A Modest
Proposal in an American college freshman class
and see what happens. - 2. Lets go back to our examples.
30Responding to irony
B1 Yes. Its awful.
A What lovely weather were having!
B2 It is, isnt it?
31 A. What lovely weather were having.B1. Yes.
Its awfulB2. It is, isnt it?
- RT would predicts that B2 is acceptable, as
it doesnt recognize the semantic incongruity of
an ironic utterance and does not admit that the
hearer has to reject the literal meaning of the
utterance (because theres no falsehood intended
or recovered.)
- CP Allows for an explanation of the
unacceptability of B2. - It recognizes the two layers of meaning what is
said and what is meant. - Since the speaker means the opposite of what is
said, she is cooperating by uttering a false
statement. - The hearer has therefore to do the same to
cooperate by saying what she doesnt literary
mean.
32The power of irony
By saying the opposite of what I mean, I dictates
the mode of communication. Sorry, you have no
choice.
33How about un-cooperation?
- A How do you explain the failed attempt to
- find any WMDs in Irag?
- B1 No comments.
- B2. My lips are sealed today.
- B3. walks away
34Uncooperation cont.
- RT The speaker is either unwilling or unable to
provide information (Sperber and Wilson 2004). Is
it considered relevant, though?
CP if speakers assume cooperation under
normal circumstances, then when they
confronts a case of uncooperation, they
are encouraged to seek reasons for it.
Opting out of cooperation leads to
implicature about the speakers beliefs,
positions on an issue, or other things.
35How about mis-communication?
Have you sent out the letter I asked you to this
morning?
No. I didnt mean that. I need to make a few
changes before it goes out.
Ill do it right now, Sir.
36 A. Have you sent out the letter I gave you this
morning?B. Ill do it right now, Sir.A. I
didnt mean that. I need to make a few changes.
- CP As question can be interpreted as both a
question (observing the maxim of relation) and a
request (violating Rela-tion). Since the theory
allows two layers of meaning, it seems to
accounts for such cases readily miscommunication
such as this occurs when the speaker and hearer
do not act on the same layer of meaning.
- RT B derives a contex-tual effect different from
the one intended by A. What would the theory say
about this discrepancy, since apparently both A
and B have good reasons to say what they say?
Both are relevant?
37A summery of sorts
- RT has derived from CP
- RT is the only serious challenge/ alternative to
CP - Not clear if RT is indeed a more superior theory.
38Grices reluctance to write leaves us wondering
- 1. Cooperation why are we under so much
- pressure to cooperate?
- 2. The power of the theory we derive
- meaning and intention even if we opt out
- of cooperation altogether.
- 3. Maxims how did he get them? Why
- four? Why these four?
39Final musing
- Public discourse, legal issues, commerce, and
other arenas of social life we argue about truth
and falsity, about how much is enough
information, about if something is relevant,
about how to say things in ways that are clear. - It seems that the four maxims have captured so
much of our life, both linguistic and otherwise.
40On will live Grice.
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Rong Chen rchen_at_csusb.edu (909) 537-5834