Chapter 1 Major Themes of Anatomy

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Chapter 1Major Themes of Anatomy Physiology

• Form and Function
• Origins of Biomedical Science
• Scientific Method
• Human Origins and Adaptations
• Human Structure
• Human Function
• Language of Medicine

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Anatomy - The Study of Form

• Observation of surface structure
• Cadaver dissection is cutting separation of
  organs to study their relationships
• Comparative anatomy is the study of more than one
  species to analyze evolutionary trends
• Physical examination
• palpation, auscultation, percussion
• Gross anatomy is what is visible with naked eye
• Histology is examination of cells with microscope

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Early Anatomical Drawings
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Physiology - The Study of Function

• Study of bodily functions by use of methods of
  experimental science
• Comparative physiology involves the study of
  different species
• Basis for the development of new drugs and
  medical procedures
• Anatomy is what shapes there are, Physiology is
  what those shapes do

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Beginnings of Medicine

• Physicians in Mesopotamia Egypt 3000 years ago
  used herbal drugs, salts physical therapy
• Greek physician Hippocrates established a code of
  ethics urged physicians to seek causes of
  disease
• Aristotle called causes for disease physiologi
  said that complex structures are built from
  simpler parts
• Galen, physician to the Roman gladiators, saw
  science as a method of discovery
• did animal dissections since use of cadavers
  banned
• wrote book advising followers to trust their own
  observation

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Birth of Modern Medicine

• Vesalius published accurate gross anatomy atlas
  (1543)
• Leeuwenhoek invented microscope to look at
  fabrics (1632-1723)
• Hooke (1665) and Zeiss (1860) developed
  improved compound microscope (described plant
  cell walls in 1665)
• Schleiden Schwann thought that all organisms
  were composed of cells -- cell theory of 1839
• Clinical practice was in dismal state
• bleeding to remove toxins, operate with dirty
  hands, no anesthesia for amputations

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Early Microscopes
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Living in a Revolution

• Pioneers in 19th 20th centuries
• established scientific way of thinking
• replaced superstition with natural laws
• momentous discoveries
• germ theory of disease
• heredity structure of DNA
• Now at threshold of modern biomedical science
• technology enhanced diagnostic ability
  life-support strategies
• genetic revolution --library of the molecular
  structure of every human gene is finished
• Gene therapy being used to treat disease

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Scientific Method

• Bacon (1561-1626) and Descartes (1596-1650)
• were not scientists but did invent new habits of
  scientific thought
• scientific method as habits of disciplined
  creativity, careful observations, logical
  thinking analysis of observations
• way of seeking trends drawing generalizations
• Convinced governments of England France to form
  academies of science that still exist today
• Scientific way of thinking based on assumptions
  methods that are reliable, objective testable

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Inductive Method

• Making observations until capable of drawing
  generalizations and making predictions
• anatomy is a product of inductive method
• Proof in science can not go past proved beyond
  reasonable doubt
• reliable methods of observation
• tested and confirmed repeatedly
• not falsified by any credible observation
• In science, all truth is tentative

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Hypothetico-Deductive Method

• Physiological knowledge gained by this method
• Ask a question and formulate a hypothesis -- an
  educated possible answer
• Good hypothesis
• consistent with what is already known
• capable of being tested and falsified with
  certain evidence
• If nothing could prove it wrong, it is not a
  scientific belief
• Hypotheses are written as If-Then predictions
• modified and rewritten after testing

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Experimental Design

• Sufficient sample size to prevent chance event
• Control group and treatment group receive the
  same treatment except for the variable being
  tested
• Prevention of psychosomatic effects
• use of placebo in control group
• Experimenter bias
• prevented with double-blind study
• Statistical testing to be sure the difference
  between groups was not random, but was due to
  variable being tested

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Peer Review

• Critical evaluation by other experts in the field
• prior to funding
• verification and repeatability of results
• Ensures honesty, objectivity quality in science

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Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang of South
Africa, known for putting vegetable remedies
ahead of anti-retrovirals, endorses Dr Matthias
Rath's vitamin treatments.
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Dr. Rath and his cure for AIDS Mega Doses of
Vitamin C

• A doctor who worked with Nobel Prize winner Linus
  Pauling

• has taken the advocacy of vitamins into all-out
  war on the pharmaceutical companies
• Buys ad space in the NY Times, and fills them
  with editorials masked as facts
• Without getting confirmation of his studies is
  taking his cure to the people of Africa
• Problems Too much Vitamin C can lead to Diarrhea
  which can kill an AIDS patient.

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Facts, Laws and Theories

• Scientific fact is information that can be
  independently verified by any trained person
• iron deficiency leads to anemia
• Law of nature is a description of the way matter
  and energy behave
• resulting from inductive reasoning repeated
  observations
• written as verbal statements or mathematical
  formulae
• Theory is a summary of conclusions drawn from
  observable facts
• it provides explanations and predictions
• sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

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Logic is the anatomy of thought -John Locke

• Conditional arguments the basis of hypothesis
  forming. Two parts
• Part 1 If p then q
• P antecedent
• Q Consequent
• Part 2 allows us to draw conclusions
• If P happens then Q happens (Modus Ponens
• If Q did not happen, P did not happen (Modus
  Tollens)

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There is a claim that lycopene, the reddish
substance in tomatoes and peppers, is of value in
protecting people from Alzheimer Disease. How
would you, as a scientist, go about
substantiating or refuting this suggestion?