Critical Thinking Reading and Writing Revisited

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Critical Thinking Reading and Writing Revisited
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An example of critical thinking?

• Its true because I believe it!

www.abc.net.au
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What is it ?

• Edward Glaser (1941) In Cottrell (2003221)
•  
• Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort
  to examine any belief or supposed form of
  knowledge in the light of the evidence that
  supports it and the further conclusions to which
  it tends.

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Can you answer these questions?

• How many birthdays does the average person have?
• 78
• 65.5
• One per year
• None

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Can you answer these questions?

• A woman gives a beggar 50p. The woman is the
  beggars sister, but the beggar is not the
  womans brother. How come?
• The beggar is the womans sister
• Not possible
• The beggar is an in-law
• The woman is the beggar

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Can you answer these questions?

• Why cant a person living in England be buried in
  Scotland?
• The Scottish parliament does not allow English
  people to be buried in Scotland
• The person is not dead yet
• It is a trick question, and the person is a Scot
  living in England
• The person is living on the border
• http//www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/quizzes/q
  1003ex.htm

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Glaser emphasises

•  
• Persistence consider every issue fully, and more
  than once.
• Evidence evaluate the evidence put forward in
  support of the belief or viewpoint.
• Implications consider where the belief or
  viewpoint leads what conclusions would follow
  are these rational and suitable? If not, should
  the belief be reconsidered?

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Implicit assumptions used as reasons
• Many people in the world are under-nourished or
  do not get enough to eat. More should be done to
  reduce the worlds population so that food
  supplies can go round.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Implicit assumptions used as reasons
• The implicit assumption is that the size of the
  worlds population is the cause of
  under-nourishment. The passage also assumes that
  there is not enough food to go round. Could be
  true no evidence given. But under-nourishment
  can also be caused by eating the wrong food. Some
  countries have too much food answer may be
  better distribution, rather than population
  control.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False Premises
• Cities are too polluted by cars exhaust fumes
  and chemicals pumped into the air. Therefore
  people ought to move to the countryside if they
  want to be healthy, as the air is cleaner there.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False Premises
• There is a false premise that the air in the
  countryside is free of pollution. There are many
  pollutants, such as agricultural pesticides, that
  can affect people living in rural areas.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Stereotyping
• On the left, we have the mens toilets, no doubt
  for the doctors, and over there are the ladies
  toilets for the nurses.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Stereotyping
• When an idea or a set of people are continually
  linked to a small number of associations. This
  can be quite subtle (unlike in the example
  above!!)
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Emotive Language
• Closing the community centre will leave our poor
  little children with nowhere to play. If the
  centre closes, parents will worry that their
  children are being left to suffer.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Emotive Language
• Language used to provoke an emotional response,
  and so by-pass a critical response.
• Frequent examples children, parents, national
  pride, religion, terrorism, crime and security.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Misrepresenting the person
• A poor form of argument consists of focussing on
  elements of a person or their argument which are
  either irrelevant to or different from what is
  being suggested.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Tautology
• The publics knowledge of health is poor and more
  money is needed for education in this area.
  Increased sums of money should be spent on
  courses to make people aware of personal health
  issues. People do not always know what they can
  do to take care of their health so further
  investment is needed in training on health
  matters.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Tautology
• A line of reasoning should take an argument
  forward. Tautological arguments simply repeat the
  same points in different words, without advancing
  the argument.
• e.g. the car was reversing backwards.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False correlations
• The number of car crimes has increased. There
  used to be only a few colours of car from which
  purchasers could choose. Now there is much more
  variety. The wider the choice of colours, the
  higher the rate of car crime.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False correlations
• It is possible that there is some link between
  the two trends but it isnt likely. The
  connection between the two trends is likely to be
  coincidental rather than correlated.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False analogies
• Cloning of human cells should never be allowed
  it will create another Frankenstein. We do not
  want such monsters.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• False analogies
• Clone exact copy
• Frankenstein ? copy
• another Frankenstein implies we should have
  learnt from past. But Frankenstein fictional.
• Monster emotive term. Cloning a monster would
  produce a monster, but no one is suggesting that.
  
• False analogy works well when one half easy to
  prove (Fmonster) leads to assumption that
  other half must be easy to prove too.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Complicity and Deflection
• Obviously, anyone with any sense knows that women
  are better at housework than men.
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Some things to look for when reading/writing.

• Complicity and Deflection
• This kind of language is used to make the reader
  feel included, and to deflect the reader from
  undertaking any kind of critical analysis
  (familiar in the writings of politicians)
• Cottrell, S (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Making a Critical Analysis

• To conduct a critical analysis, you must have a
• dispassionate distance from your research topic
• systematic, questioning approach to all your
  sources
• systematic, questioning approach to the concepts
  you use

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Four principles of Academic Communication

• CLARITYBe clear and direct in your style. Be
  direct about your aims and objectives. Don't use
  more words than are necessary.
• http//www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-2-1.html

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Four principles of Academic Communication

• REALITYExplain what needs to be explained, for
  example, which particular definition of
  patriarchy you are using in your argument, but
  assume your reader has basic knowledge of the
  world.
• http//www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-2-1.html

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Four principles of Academic Communication

• RELEVANCEConsider only that which is relevant to
  the topic, focus and objectives of your argument
  or discussion. Do not include anything that you
  cannot link to your argument or show its impact
  on the topic discussed. Do not put crucial
  information in your conclusion that has not
  previously been discussed in the body of your
  work.
• http//www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-2-1.html

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Four principles of Academic Communication

• HONESTYState only that which you can support
  with factual evidence. Always acknowledge the
  source of both evidence and ideas.
• http//www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-2-1.html

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Read Less Think More

• Reading is an essential part of all academic
  study, but many students read too much and
  reflect too little on what they have read.
• Always consider
• Why you are reading,
• How much you should read, and
• What will you do with the information/knowledge
  gained.

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Ask

• Why?
• How far?
• How much?
• How often?
• To what extent?
• How do we know this is true?
• How reliable is this source?
• What could be going on beneath the surface?
• What do we not know about this?
• Which is preferable?
• For what reasons?
• Cottrell, S (2003), The Study Skills Handbook,
  Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

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Questions for Critical Reading and Analysis

• How reliable is the information?
• What is the background of the author?
• Are there any potential conflicts of interest?
• How selective has the author been in their choice
  of literature?

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Questions for Critical Reading and Analysis

• Does the author hold the same/similar/opposing
  view to other authors writing on the same
  subject? What do you think?
• What methodologies/ theories have been applied?
  Are they made explicit? Are they justified?
• What is the population base for any case studies?
  Are there any other validity issues?

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Language for being critical

• Introducing questions, problems and limitations
• One question that needs to be asked, however, is
  
• The existing accounts fail to resolve the
  contradiction between X and Y
• Smiths interpretation overlooks much of the
  historical research.
• Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this
  method is that
• Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is
  made to implement the policy.

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Language for being critical

• Offering constructive suggestions
• Her conclusions would have been more convincing
  if she had included
• A better study would include

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Language for being critical

• Introducing other peoples criticisms
• Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X
  has not been successful. Jones (2003), for
  example, points out that ..
• More recent arguments against X have been
  summarised by Smith and Jones (1999)
• Critics have also argued that not only do social
  surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but
  the

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Fast food chains

• Identify the weaknesses in the reply to the
  editor of the Good Restaurant Guide.

OCR Critical Thinking Specimen Paper 2002, taken
from http//www.ocr.org.uk/Data/publications/spe
cimen_assessment_materials/AEA_Critic44389.pdf
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Fast food chains

• 2. The argument seeks to reply to environmental
  objections to fast-food outlets.
• Identify the replies
• Assess the reasoning
• Suggest additional evidence to support the
  reasoning

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Exercise Finding Flaws in an Argument

• False premises.
• Stereotyping.
• Lack of precision.
• Assumption that is not supported by evidence.
• 5. False analogy.
• 6. Deflection and complicity.
• (Cottrell, S, (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave p 212)

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Exercise Finding Flaws in an Argument

• 7. Emotive Language.
• 8. Misrepresentation.
• 9. Tautology.
• 10. Poor referencing.
• (Cottrell, S, (2005) Critical Thinking Skills,
  Palgrave p 212)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• Critical Analysis of a Text
• Text
• 1. What review question am I asking of this text?
• (e.g. what is my research question? why select
  this text? does the Critical Analysis of this
  text fit into my investigation with a wider
  focus? what is my constructive purpose in
  undertaking a Critical Analysis of this text?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 2. What type of literature is this?
• (e.g. theoretical, research, practice, policy?
  are there links with other types of literature?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 3. What sort of intellectual project for study is
  being undertaken?
• How clear is it which project the authors are
  undertaking? (e.g. knowledge-for-understanding,
  knowledge-for-critical evaluation,
  knowledge-for-action, instrumentalism, reflexive
  action?)
• b) How is the project reflected in the authors
  mode of working? (e.g. a social science or a
  practical orientation? choice of methodology and
  methods? an interest in understanding or in
  improving practice?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• c) What value stance is adopted towards the
  practice or policy investigated? (e.g. relatively
  impartial, critical, positive, unclear? what
  assumptions are made about the possibility of
  improvement? whose practice or policy is the
  focus of interest?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• d) How does the sort of project being undertaken
  affect the research questions addressed? (e.g.
  investigating what happens? what is wrong? how
  well does a particular policy or intervention
  work in practice?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• e) How does the sort of project being undertaken
  affect the place of theory? (e.g. is the
  investigation informed by theory? generating
  theory? atheoretical? developing social science
  theory or a practical theory?)
• f) How does the authors target audience affect
  the reporting of research? (e.g. do they assume
  academic knowledge of methods? criticize policy?
  offer recommendations for action?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 4. What is being claimed?
• a) What are the main kinds of knowledge claim
  that the authors are making? (e.g. theoretical
  knowledge, research knowledge, practice
  knowledge?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• b) What is the content of the main claims to
  knowledge and of the overall argument? (e.g.
  what, in a sentence, is being argued? what are
  the three to five most significant claims that
  encompass much of the detail? are there key
  prescriptions for improving policy or practice?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• c) How clear are the authors claims and overall
  argument? (e.g. stated in an abstract,
  introduction or conclusion? unclear?)
• d) With what degree of certainty do the authors
  make their claims? (e.g. do they indicate
  tentativeness? qualify their claims by
  acknowledging limitations of their evidence?
  acknowledge others counter-evidence? acknowledge
  that the situation may have changed since data
  collection?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• e) How generalized are the authors claims to
  what range of phenomena are they claimed to
  apply? (e.g. the specific context from which the
  claims were derived? other similar contexts? a
  national system? a culture? universal? implicit?
  unspecified?)
• f) How consistent are the authors claims with
  each other? (e.g. do all claims fit together in
  supporting an argument? do any claims contradict
  each other?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 5. To what extent is there backing for claims?
• a) How transparent is it what, if any, sources
  are used to back the claims? (e.g. is there any
  statement of the basis for assertions? are
  sources unspecified?)
• b) What, if any, range of sources is used to back
  the claims? (e.g. first hand experience? the
  authors own practice knowledge or research?
  literature about others practice knowledge or
  research? literature about reviews of practice
  knowledge or research? literature about others
  polemic?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• c) If claims are at least partly based on the
  authors own research, how robust is the
  evidence? (e.g. is the range of sources adequate?
  are there methodological limitations or flaws in
  the methods employed? do they include
  cross-checking or triangulation of accounts?
  what is the sample size and is it large enough to
  support the claims being made? is there an
  adequately detailed account of data collection
  and analysis? is a summary given of all data
  reported?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• d) Are sources of backing for claims consistent
  with degree of certainty and the degree of
  generalization? (e.g. is there sufficient
  evidence to support claims made with a high
  degree of certainty? is there sufficient evidence
  from other contexts to support claims entailing
  extensive generalization?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 6. How adequate is any theoretical orientation to
  back claims?
• a) How explicit are the authors about any
  theoretical orientation or conceptual framework?
  (e.g. is there a conceptual framework guiding
  data collection? is a conceptual framework
  selected after data collection to guide analysis?
  is there a largely implicit theoretical
  orientation?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• b) What assumptions does any explicit or implicit
  theoretical orientation make that may affect the
  authors claims? (e.g. does a perspective focus
  attention on some aspects and under-emphasize
  others? if more than one perspective is used, how
  coherently do the different perspectives relate
  to each other?)
• c) What are the key concepts underpinning any
  explicit or implicit theoretical orientation?
  (e.g. are they listed? are they stipulatively
  defined? are concepts mutually compatible? is use
  of concepts consistent? is the use of concepts
  congruent with others use of the same concepts?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 7. To what extent does any value stance adopted
  affect claims?
• a) How explicit are the authors about any value
  stance connected with the phenomena? (e.g. a
  relatively impartial, critical, or positive
  stance? is this stance informed by a particular
  ideology? is it adopted before or after data
  collection?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• b) How may any explicit or implicit value stance
  adopted by the authors affect their claims? (e.g.
  have they pre-judged the phenomena discussed? are
  they biased? is it legitimate for the authors to
  adopt their particular value stance? have they
  over-emphasized some aspects of the phenomenon
  while under-emphasizing others?)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 8. To what extent are claims supported or
  challenged by others work?
• a) Do the authors relate their claims to others
  work? (e.g. do the authors refer to others
  published evidence, theoretical orientations or
  value stances to support their claims? do they
  acknowledge others counter-evidence?)
• b) If the authors use evidence from others work
  to support their claims, how robust is it? (e.g.
  as for 5c)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• c) Is there any evidence from others work that
  challenges the authors claims, and if so, how
  robust is it? (e.g. is there relevant research or
  practice literature? check any as for 5c)

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 9. To what extent are claims consistent with my
  experience?

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Critical Analysis of a Text Wallace
Wrayhttp//www.sagepub.co.uk/upm-data/9815_Criti
cal_Analysis_template.doc

• 10. What is my summary evaluation of the text in
  relation to my review question or issue?
• a) How convincing are the authors claims, and
  why?
• b) How, if at all, could the authors have
  provided stronger backing for their claims?