Lectures for 3rd Edition

1
Lectures for 3rd Edition

• Note these lectures are often supplemented with
  other materials and also problems from the text
  worked out on the blackboard. Youll want to
  customize these lectures for your class. The
  student audience for these lectures have had
  exposure to logic design and attend a hands-on
  assembly language programming lab that does not
  follow a typical lecture format.

2
Chapter 1
3
Introduction

• This course is all about how computers work
• But what do we mean by a computer?
• Different types desktop, servers, embedded
  devices
• Different uses automobiles, graphics, finance,
  genomics
• Different manufacturers Intel, Apple, IBM,
  Microsoft, Sun
• Different underlying technologies and different
  costs!
• Analogy Consider a course on automotive
  vehicles
• Many similarities from vehicle to vehicle (e.g.,
  wheels)
• Huge differences from vehicle to vehicle (e.g.,
  gas vs. electric)
• Best way to learn
• Focus on a specific instance and learn how it
  works
• While learning general principles and historical
  perspectives

4
Why learn this stuff?

• You want to call yourself a computer scientist
• You want to build software people use (need
  performance)
• You need to make a purchasing decision or offer
  expert advice
• Both Hardware and Software affect performance
• Algorithm determines number of source-level
  statements
• Language/Compiler/Architecture determine machine
  instructions (Chapter 2 and 3)
• Processor/Memory determine how fast instructions
  are executed (Chapter 5, 6, and 7)
• Assessing and Understanding Performance in
  Chapter 4

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What is a computer?

• Components
• input (mouse, keyboard)
• output (display, printer)
• memory (disk drives, DRAM, SRAM, CD)
• network
• Our primary focus the processor (datapath and
  control)
• implemented using millions of transistors
• Impossible to understand by looking at each
  transistor
• We need...

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Abstraction

• Delving into the depths reveals more
  information
• An abstraction omits unneeded detail, helps us
  cope with complexityWhat are some of the
  details that appear in these familiar
  abstractions?

7
How do computers work?

• Need to understand abstractions such as
• Applications software
• Systems software
• Assembly Language
• Machine Language
• Architectural Issues i.e., Caches, Virtual
  Memory, Pipelining
• Sequential logic, finite state machines
• Combinational logic, arithmetic circuits
• Boolean logic, 1s and 0s
• Transistors used to build logic gates (CMOS)
• Semiconductors/Silicon used to build transistors
• Properties of atoms, electrons, and quantum
  dynamics
• So much to learn!

8
Instruction Set Architecture

• A very important abstraction
• interface between hardware and low-level software
• standardizes instructions, machine language bit
  patterns, etc.
• advantage different implementations of the same
  architecture
• disadvantage sometimes prevents using new
  innovationsTrue or False Binary compatibility
  is extraordinarily important?
• Modern instruction set architectures
• IA-32, PowerPC, MIPS, SPARC, ARM, and others

9
Historical Perspective

• ENIAC built in World War II was the first general
  purpose computer
• Used for computing artillery firing tables
• 80 feet long by 8.5 feet high and several feet
  wide
• Each of the twenty 10 digit registers was 2 feet
  long
• Used 18,000 vacuum tubes
• Performed 1900 additions per second

• Since thenMoores Law transistor capacity
  doubles every 18-24 months

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Chapter 2

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Instructions

• Language of the Machine
• Well be working with the MIPS instruction set
  architecture
• similar to other architectures developed since
  the 1980's
• Almost 100 million MIPS processors manufactured
  in 2002
• used by NEC, Nintendo, Cisco, Silicon Graphics,
  Sony,

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MIPS arithmetic

• All instructions have 3 operands
• Operand order is fixed (destination
  first) Example C code a b c MIPS
  code add a, b, c (well talk about
  registers in a bit)The natural number of
  operands for an operation like addition is
  threerequiring every instruction to have exactly
  three operands, no more and no less, conforms to
  the philosophy of keeping the hardware simple

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MIPS arithmetic

• Design Principle simplicity favors regularity.
  
• Of course this complicates some things... C
  code a b c d MIPS code add a, b,
  c add a, a, d
• Operands must be registers, only 32 registers
  provided
• Each register contains 32 bits
• Design Principle smaller is faster. Why?

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Registers vs. Memory

• Arithmetic instructions operands must be
  registers, only 32 registers provided
• Compiler associates variables with registers
• What about programs with lots of variables

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Memory Organization

• Viewed as a large, single-dimension array, with
  an address.
• A memory address is an index into the array
• "Byte addressing" means that the index points to
  a byte of memory.

0
8 bits of data
1
8 bits of data
2
8 bits of data
3
8 bits of data
4
8 bits of data
5
8 bits of data
6
8 bits of data
...
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Memory Organization

• Bytes are nice, but most data items use larger
  "words"
• For MIPS, a word is 32 bits or 4 bytes.
• 232 bytes with byte addresses from 0 to 232-1
• 230 words with byte addresses 0, 4, 8, ... 232-4
• Words are aligned i.e., what are the least 2
  significant bits of a word address?

0
32 bits of data
4
32 bits of data
Registers hold 32 bits of data
8
32 bits of data
12
32 bits of data
...
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Instructions

• Load and store instructions
• Example C code A12 h A8 MIPS
  code lw t0, 32(s3) add t0, s2, t0 sw
  t0, 48(s3)
• Can refer to registers by name (e.g., s2, t2)
  instead of number
• Store word has destination last
• Remember arithmetic operands are registers, not
  memory! Cant write add 48(s3), s2,
  32(s3)

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Our First Example

• Can we figure out the code?

swap(int v, int k) int temp temp
vk vk vk1 vk1 temp
swap muli 2, 5, 4 add 2, 4, 2 lw 15,
0(2) lw 16, 4(2) sw 16, 0(2) sw 15,
4(2) jr 31
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So far weve learned

• MIPS loading words but addressing bytes
  arithmetic on registers only
• Instruction Meaningadd s1, s2, s3 s1
  s2 s3sub s1, s2, s3 s1 s2 s3lw
  s1, 100(s2) s1 Memorys2100 sw s1,
  100(s2) Memorys2100 s1

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Machine Language

• Instructions, like registers and words of data,
  are also 32 bits long
• Example add t1, s1, s2
• registers have numbers, t19, s117, s218
• Instruction Format 000000 10001 10010 01000 000
  00 100000 op rs rt rd shamt funct
• Can you guess what the field names stand for?

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Machine Language

• Consider the load-word and store-word
  instructions,
• What would the regularity principle have us do?
• New principle Good design demands a compromise
• Introduce a new type of instruction format
• I-type for data transfer instructions
• other format was R-type for register
• Example lw t0, 32(s2) 35 18 9
  32 op rs rt 16 bit number
• Where's the compromise?

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Stored Program Concept

• Instructions are bits
• Programs are stored in memory to be read or
  written just like data
• Fetch Execute Cycle
• Instructions are fetched and put into a special
  register
• Bits in the register "control" the subsequent
  actions
• Fetch the next instruction and continue

memory for data, programs, compilers, editors,
etc.
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Control

• Decision making instructions
• alter the control flow,
• i.e., change the "next" instruction to be
  executed
• MIPS conditional branch instructions bne t0,
  t1, Label beq t0, t1, Label
• Example if (ij) h i j bne s0, s1,
  Label add s3, s0, s1 Label ....

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Control

• MIPS unconditional branch instructions j label
• Example if (i!j) beq s4, s5, Lab1
  hij add s3, s4, s5 else j Lab2
  hi-j Lab1 sub s3, s4, s5 Lab2 ...
• Can you build a simple for loop?

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So far

• Instruction Meaningadd s1,s2,s3 s1 s2
  s3sub s1,s2,s3 s1 s2 s3lw
  s1,100(s2) s1 Memorys2100 sw
  s1,100(s2) Memorys2100 s1bne
  s4,s5,L Next instr. is at Label if s4 ?
  s5beq s4,s5,L Next instr. is at Label if s4
  s5j Label Next instr. is at Label
• Formats

R I J
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Control Flow

• We have beq, bne, what about Branch-if-less-than
  ?
• New instruction if s1 lt s2 then
  t0 1 slt t0, s1, s2 else t0
  0
• Can use this instruction to build "blt s1, s2,
  Label" can now build general control
  structures
• Note that the assembler needs a register to do
  this, there are policy of use conventions for
  registers

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Policy of Use Conventions
Register 1 (at) reserved for assembler, 26-27
for operating system
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Constants

• Small constants are used quite frequently (50 of
  operands) e.g., A A 5 B B 1 C
  C - 18
• Solutions? Why not?
• put 'typical constants' in memory and load them.
  
• create hard-wired registers (like zero) for
  constants like one.
• MIPS Instructions addi 29, 29, 4 slti 8,
  18, 10 andi 29, 29, 6 ori 29, 29, 4
• Design Principle Make the common case fast.
  Which format?

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How about larger constants?

• We'd like to be able to load a 32 bit constant
  into a register
• Must use two instructions, new "load upper
  immediate" instruction lui t0,
  1010101010101010
• Then must get the lower order bits right,
  i.e., ori t0, t0, 1010101010101010

1010101010101010
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1010101010101010
ori
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Assembly Language vs. Machine Language

• Assembly provides convenient symbolic
  representation
• much easier than writing down numbers
• e.g., destination first
• Machine language is the underlying reality
• e.g., destination is no longer first
• Assembly can provide 'pseudoinstructions'
• e.g., move t0, t1 exists only in Assembly
• would be implemented using add t0,t1,zero
• When considering performance you should count
  real instructions

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Other Issues

• Discussed in your assembly language programming
  lab support for procedures linkers, loaders,
  memory layout stacks, frames, recursion manipula
  ting strings and pointers interrupts and
  exceptions system calls and conventions
• Some of these we'll talk more about later
• Well talk about compiler optimizations when we
  hit chapter 4.

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Overview of MIPS

• simple instructions all 32 bits wide
• very structured, no unnecessary baggage
• only three instruction formats
• rely on compiler to achieve performance what
  are the compiler's goals?
• help compiler where we can

op rs rt rd shamt funct
R I J
op rs rt 16 bit address
op 26 bit address
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Addresses in Branches and Jumps

• Instructions
• bne t4,t5,Label Next instruction is at Label
  if t4 t5
• beq t4,t5,Label Next instruction is at Label
  if t4 t5
• j Label Next instruction is at Label
• Formats
• Addresses are not 32 bits How do we handle
  this with load and store instructions?

op rs rt 16 bit address
I J
op 26 bit address
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Addresses in Branches

• Instructions
• bne t4,t5,Label Next instruction is at Label if
  t4?t5
• beq t4,t5,Label Next instruction is at Label if
  t4t5
• Formats
• Could specify a register (like lw and sw) and add
  it to address
• use Instruction Address Register (PC program
  counter)
• most branches are local (principle of locality)
• Jump instructions just use high order bits of PC
• address boundaries of 256 MB

op rs rt 16 bit address
I
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To summarize
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(No Transcript)
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Alternative Architectures

• Design alternative
• provide more powerful operations
• goal is to reduce number of instructions executed
• danger is a slower cycle time and/or a higher
  CPI
• Lets look (briefly) at IA-32

• The path toward operation complexity is thus
  fraught with peril. To avoid these problems,
  designers have moved toward simpler instructions

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IA - 32

• 1978 The Intel 8086 is announced (16 bit
  architecture)
• 1980 The 8087 floating point coprocessor is
  added
• 1982 The 80286 increases address space to 24
  bits, instructions
• 1985 The 80386 extends to 32 bits, new
  addressing modes
• 1989-1995 The 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro add a
  few instructions (mostly designed for higher
  performance)
• 1997 57 new MMX instructions are added,
  Pentium II
• 1999 The Pentium III added another 70
  instructions (SSE)
• 2001 Another 144 instructions (SSE2)
• 2003 AMD extends the architecture to increase
  address space to 64 bits, widens all registers
  to 64 bits and other changes (AMD64)
• 2004 Intel capitulates and embraces AMD64
  (calls it EM64T) and adds more media extensions
• This history illustrates the impact of the
  golden handcuffs of compatibilityadding new
  features as someone might add clothing to a
  packed bagan architecture that is difficult
  to explain and impossible to love

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IA-32 Overview

• Complexity
• Instructions from 1 to 17 bytes long
• one operand must act as both a source and
  destination
• one operand can come from memory
• complex addressing modes e.g., base or scaled
  index with 8 or 32 bit displacement
• Saving grace
• the most frequently used instructions are not too
  difficult to build
• compilers avoid the portions of the architecture
  that are slow
• what the 80x86 lacks in style is made up in
  quantity, making it beautiful from the right
  perspective

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IA-32 Registers and Data Addressing

• Registers in the 32-bit subset that originated
  with 80386

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IA-32 Register Restrictions

• Registers are not general purpose note the
  restrictions below

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IA-32 Typical Instructions

• Four major types of integer instructions
• Data movement including move, push, pop
• Arithmetic and logical (destination register or
  memory)
• Control flow (use of condition codes / flags )
• String instructions, including string move and
  string compare

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IA-32 instruction Formats

• Typical formats (notice the different lengths)

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Summary

• Instruction complexity is only one variable
• lower instruction count vs. higher CPI / lower
  clock rate
• Design Principles
• simplicity favors regularity
• smaller is faster
• good design demands compromise
• make the common case fast
• Instruction set architecture
• a very important abstraction indeed!

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Chapter Three
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Numbers

• Bits are just bits (no inherent meaning)
  conventions define relationship between bits and
  numbers
• Binary numbers (base 2) 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100
  0101 0110 0111 1000 1001... decimal 0...2n-1
• Of course it gets more complicated numbers are
  finite (overflow) fractions and real
  numbers negative numbers e.g., no MIPS subi
  instruction addi can add a negative number
• How do we represent negative numbers? i.e.,
  which bit patterns will represent which numbers?

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Possible Representations

• Sign Magnitude One's Complement
  Two's Complement 000 0 000 0 000
  0 001 1 001 1 001 1 010 2 010
  2 010 2 011 3 011 3 011 3 100
  -0 100 -3 100 -4 101 -1 101 -2 101
  -3 110 -2 110 -1 110 -2 111 -3 111
  -0 111 -1
• Issues balance, number of zeros, ease of
  operations
• Which one is best? Why?

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MIPS

• 32 bit signed numbers0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
  0000 0000 0000two 0ten0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
  0000 0000 0001two 1ten0000 0000 0000 0000
  0000 0000 0000 0010two 2ten...0111 1111
  1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110two
  2,147,483,646ten0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
  1111 1111two 2,147,483,647ten1000 0000 0000
  0000 0000 0000 0000 0000two
  2,147,483,648ten1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
  0000 0001two 2,147,483,647ten1000 0000 0000
  0000 0000 0000 0000 0010two
  2,147,483,646ten...1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
  1111 1111 1101two 3ten1111 1111 1111 1111
  1111 1111 1111 1110two 2ten1111 1111 1111
  1111 1111 1111 1111 1111two 1ten

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Two's Complement Operations

• Negating a two's complement number invert all
  bits and add 1
• remember negate and invert are quite
  different!
• Converting n bit numbers into numbers with more
  than n bits
• MIPS 16 bit immediate gets converted to 32 bits
  for arithmetic
• copy the most significant bit (the sign bit) into
  the other bits 0010 -gt 0000 0010 1010 -gt
  1111 1010
• "sign extension" (lbu vs. lb)

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Addition Subtraction

• Just like in grade school (carry/borrow 1s)
  0111 0111 0110  0110 - 0110 - 0101
• Two's complement operations easy
• subtraction using addition of negative numbers
  0111  1010
• Overflow (result too large for finite computer
  word)
• e.g., adding two n-bit numbers does not yield an
  n-bit number 0111  0001 note that overflow
  term is somewhat misleading, 1000 it does not
  mean a carry overflowed

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Detecting Overflow

• No overflow when adding a positive and a negative
  number
• No overflow when signs are the same for
  subtraction
• Overflow occurs when the value affects the sign
• overflow when adding two positives yields a
  negative
• or, adding two negatives gives a positive
• or, subtract a negative from a positive and get a
  negative
• or, subtract a positive from a negative and get a
  positive
• Consider the operations A B, and A B
• Can overflow occur if B is 0 ?
• Can overflow occur if A is 0 ?

52
Effects of Overflow

• An exception (interrupt) occurs
• Control jumps to predefined address for exception
• Interrupted address is saved for possible
  resumption
• Details based on software system / language
• example flight control vs. homework assignment
• Don't always want to detect overflow new MIPS
  instructions addu, addiu, subu note addiu
  still sign-extends! note sltu, sltiu for
  unsigned comparisons

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Multiplication

• More complicated than addition
• accomplished via shifting and addition
• More time and more area
• Let's look at 3 versions based on a gradeschool
  algorithm 0010 (multiplicand) __x_101
  1 (multiplier)
• Negative numbers convert and multiply
• there are better techniques, we wont look at them

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Multiplication Implementation
Datapath
Control
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Final Version

• Multiplier starts in right half of product

What goes here?
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Floating Point (a brief look)

• We need a way to represent
• numbers with fractions, e.g., 3.1416
• very small numbers, e.g., .000000001
• very large numbers, e.g., 3.15576 109
• Representation
• sign, exponent, significand (1)sign
  significand 2exponent
• more bits for significand gives more accuracy
• more bits for exponent increases range
• IEEE 754 floating point standard
• single precision 8 bit exponent, 23 bit
  significand
• double precision 11 bit exponent, 52 bit
  significand

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IEEE 754 floating-point standard

• Leading 1 bit of significand is implicit
• Exponent is biased to make sorting easier
• all 0s is smallest exponent all 1s is largest
• bias of 127 for single precision and 1023 for
  double precision
• summary (1)sign (1significand)
  2exponent bias
• Example
• decimal -.75 - ( ½ ¼ )
• binary -.11 -1.1 x 2-1
• floating point exponent 126 01111110
• IEEE single precision 10111111010000000000000000
  000000

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Floating point addition

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Floating Point Complexities

• Operations are somewhat more complicated (see
  text)
• In addition to overflow we can have underflow
• Accuracy can be a big problem
• IEEE 754 keeps two extra bits, guard and round
• four rounding modes
• positive divided by zero yields infinity
• zero divide by zero yields not a number
• other complexities
• Implementing the standard can be tricky
• Not using the standard can be even worse
• see text for description of 80x86 and Pentium bug!

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Chapter Three Summary

• Computer arithmetic is constrained by limited
  precision
• Bit patterns have no inherent meaning but
  standards do exist
• twos complement
• IEEE 754 floating point
• Computer instructions determine meaning of the
  bit patterns
• Performance and accuracy are important so there
  are many complexities in real machines
• Algorithm choice is important and may lead to
  hardware optimizations for both space and time
  (e.g., multiplication)
• You may want to look back (Section 3.10 is great
  reading!)

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Chapter 4
62
Performance

• Measure, Report, and Summarize
• Make intelligent choices
• See through the marketing hype
• Key to understanding underlying organizational
  motivationWhy is some hardware better than
  others for different programs?What factors of
  system performance are hardware related? (e.g.,
  Do we need a new machine, or a new operating
  system?)How does the machine's instruction set
  affect performance?

63
Which of these airplanes has the best performance?
Airplane Passengers Range (mi) Speed
(mph) Boeing 737-100 101 630 598 Boeing
747 470 4150 610 BAC/Sud Concorde 132 4000 1350 Do
uglas DC-8-50 146 8720 544

• How much faster is the Concorde compared to the
  747?
• How much bigger is the 747 than the Douglas DC-8?

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Computer Performance TIME, TIME, TIME

• Response Time (latency) How long does it take
  for my job to run? How long does it take to
  execute a job? How long must I wait for the
  database query?
• Throughput How many jobs can the machine run
  at once? What is the average execution
  rate? How much work is getting done?
• If we upgrade a machine with a new processor what
  do we increase?
• If we add a new machine to the lab what do we
  increase?

65
Execution Time

• Elapsed Time
• counts everything (disk and memory accesses, I/O
  , etc.)
• a useful number, but often not good for
  comparison purposes
• CPU time
• doesn't count I/O or time spent running other
  programs
• can be broken up into system time, and user time
• Our focus user CPU time
• time spent executing the lines of code that are
  "in" our program

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Book's Definition of Performance

• For some program running on machine X,
  PerformanceX 1 / Execution timeX
• "X is n times faster than Y" PerformanceX /
  PerformanceY n
• Problem
• machine A runs a program in 20 seconds
• machine B runs the same program in 25 seconds

67
Clock Cycles

• Instead of reporting execution time in seconds,
  we often use cycles
• Clock ticks indicate when to start activities
  (one abstraction)
• cycle time time between ticks seconds per
  cycle
• clock rate (frequency) cycles per second (1
  Hz. 1 cycle/sec)A 4 Ghz. clock has a
  
  cycle time

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How to Improve Performance

• So, to improve performance (everything else being
  equal) you can either (increase or
  decrease?)________ the of required cycles for
  a program, or________ the clock cycle time or,
  said another way, ________ the clock rate.

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How many cycles are required for a program?

• Could assume that number of cycles equals number
  of instructions

time
This assumption is incorrect, different
instructions take different amounts of time on
different machines.Why? hint remember that
these are machine instructions, not lines of C
code
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Different numbers of cycles for different
instructions
time

• Multiplication takes more time than addition
• Floating point operations take longer than
  integer ones
• Accessing memory takes more time than accessing
  registers
• Important point changing the cycle time often
  changes the number of cycles required for various
  instructions (more later)

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Example

• Our favorite program runs in 10 seconds on
  computer A, which has a 4 GHz. clock. We are
  trying to help a computer designer build a new
  machine B, that will run this program in 6
  seconds. The designer can use new (or perhaps
  more expensive) technology to substantially
  increase the clock rate, but has informed us that
  this increase will affect the rest of the CPU
  design, causing machine B to require 1.2 times as
  many clock cycles as machine A for the same
  program. What clock rate should we tell the
  designer to target?"
• Don't Panic, can easily work this out from basic
  principles

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Now that we understand cycles

• A given program will require
• some number of instructions (machine
  instructions)
• some number of cycles
• some number of seconds
• We have a vocabulary that relates these
  quantities
• cycle time (seconds per cycle)
• clock rate (cycles per second)
• CPI (cycles per instruction) a floating point
  intensive application might have a higher CPI
• MIPS (millions of instructions per second) this
  would be higher for a program using simple
  instructions

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Performance

• Performance is determined by execution time
• Do any of the other variables equal performance?
• of cycles to execute program?
• of instructions in program?
• of cycles per second?
• average of cycles per instruction?
• average of instructions per second?
• Common pitfall thinking one of the variables is
  indicative of performance when it really isnt.

74
CPI Example

• Suppose we have two implementations of the same
  instruction set architecture (ISA). For some
  program,Machine A has a clock cycle time of 250
  ps and a CPI of 2.0 Machine B has a clock cycle
  time of 500 ps and a CPI of 1.2 What machine is
  faster for this program, and by how much?
• If two machines have the same ISA which of our
  quantities (e.g., clock rate, CPI, execution
  time, of instructions, MIPS) will always be
  identical?

75
of Instructions Example

• A compiler designer is trying to decide between
  two code sequences for a particular machine.
  Based on the hardware implementation, there are
  three different classes of instructions Class
  A, Class B, and Class C, and they require one,
  two, and three cycles (respectively). The
  first code sequence has 5 instructions 2 of A,
  1 of B, and 2 of CThe second sequence has 6
  instructions 4 of A, 1 of B, and 1 of C.Which
  sequence will be faster? How much?What is the
  CPI for each sequence?

76
MIPS example

• Two different compilers are being tested for a 4
  GHz. machine with three different classes of
  instructions Class A, Class B, and Class C,
  which require one, two, and three cycles
  (respectively). Both compilers are used to
  produce code for a large piece of software.The
  first compiler's code uses 5 million Class A
  instructions, 1 million Class B instructions, and
  1 million Class C instructions.The second
  compiler's code uses 10 million Class A
  instructions, 1 million Class B instructions,
  and 1 million Class C instructions.
• Which sequence will be faster according to MIPS?
• Which sequence will be faster according to
  execution time?

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Benchmarks

• Performance best determined by running a real
  application
• Use programs typical of expected workload
• Or, typical of expected class of
  applications e.g., compilers/editors, scientific
  applications, graphics, etc.
• Small benchmarks
• nice for architects and designers
• easy to standardize
• can be abused
• SPEC (System Performance Evaluation Cooperative)
• companies have agreed on a set of real program
  and inputs
• valuable indicator of performance (and compiler
  technology)
• can still be abused

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Benchmark Games

• An embarrassed Intel Corp. acknowledged Friday
  that a bug in a software program known as a
  compiler had led the company to overstate the
  speed of its microprocessor chips on an industry
  benchmark by 10 percent. However, industry
  analysts said the coding errorwas a sad
  commentary on a common industry practice of
  cheating on standardized performance testsThe
  error was pointed out to Intel two days ago by a
  competitor, Motorola came in a test known as
  SPECint92Intel acknowledged that it had
  optimized its compiler to improve its test
  scores. The company had also said that it did
  not like the practice but felt to compelled to
  make the optimizations because its competitors
  were doing the same thingAt the heart of Intels
  problem is the practice of tuning compiler
  programs to recognize certain computing problems
  in the test and then substituting special
  handwritten pieces of code Saturday, January
  6, 1996 New York Times

79
SPEC 89

• Compiler enhancements and performance

80
SPEC CPU2000
81
SPEC 2000

• Does doubling the clock rate double the
  performance?
• Can a machine with a slower clock rate have
  better performance?

82
Experiment

• Phone a major computer retailer and tell them you
  are having trouble deciding between two different
  computers, specifically you are confused about
  the processors strengths and weaknesses (e.g.,
  Pentium 4 at 2Ghz vs. Celeron M at 1.4 Ghz )
• What kind of response are you likely to get?
• What kind of response could you give a friend
  with the same question?

83
Amdahl's Law

• Execution Time After Improvement Execution
  Time Unaffected ( Execution Time Affected /
  Amount of Improvement )
• Example "Suppose a program runs in 100 seconds
  on a machine, with multiply responsible for 80
  seconds of this time. How much do we have to
  improve the speed of multiplication if we want
  the program to run 4 times faster?" How about
  making it 5 times faster?
• Principle Make the common case fast

84
Example

• Suppose we enhance a machine making all
  floating-point instructions run five times
  faster. If the execution time of some benchmark
  before the floating-point enhancement is 10
  seconds, what will the speedup be if half of the
  10 seconds is spent executing floating-point
  instructions?
• We are looking for a benchmark to show off the
  new floating-point unit described above, and want
  the overall benchmark to show a speedup of 3.
  One benchmark we are considering runs for 100
  seconds with the old floating-point hardware.
  How much of the execution time would
  floating-point instructions have to account for
  in this program in order to yield our desired
  speedup on this benchmark?

85
Remember

• Performance is specific to a particular program/s
• Total execution time is a consistent summary of
  performance
• For a given architecture performance increases
  come from
• increases in clock rate (without adverse CPI
  affects)
• improvements in processor organization that lower
  CPI
• compiler enhancements that lower CPI and/or
  instruction count
• Algorithm/Language choices that affect
  instruction count
• Pitfall expecting improvement in one aspect of
  a machines performance to affect the total
  performance

86
Lets Build a Processor

• Almost ready to move into chapter 5 and start
  building a processor
• First, lets review Boolean Logic and build the
  ALU well need (Material from Appendix B)

87
Review Boolean Algebra Gates

• Problem Consider a logic function with three
  inputs A, B, and C. Output D is true if at
  least one input is true Output E is true if
  exactly two inputs are true Output F is true
  only if all three inputs are true
• Show the truth table for these three functions.
• Show the Boolean equations for these three
  functions.
• Show an implementation consisting of inverters,
  AND, and OR gates.

88
An ALU (arithmetic logic unit)

• Let's build an ALU to support the andi and ori
  instructions
• we'll just build a 1 bit ALU, and use 32 of
  them
• Possible Implementation (sum-of-products)

a
b
89
Review The Multiplexor

• Selects one of the inputs to be the output,
  based on a control input
• Lets build our ALU using a MUX

note we call this a 2-input mux even
though it has 3 inputs!
0
1
90
Different Implementations

• Not easy to decide the best way to build
  something
• Don't want too many inputs to a single gate
• Dont want to have to go through too many gates
• for our purposes, ease of comprehension is
  important
• Let's look at a 1-bit ALU for addition
• How could we build a 1-bit ALU for add, and, and
  or?
• How could we build a 32-bit ALU?

cout a b a cin b cin sum a xor b xor cin
91
Building a 32 bit ALU
92
What about subtraction (a b) ?

• Two's complement approach just negate b and
  add.
• How do we negate?
• A very clever solution

93
Adding a NOR function

• Can also choose to invert a. How do we get a
  NOR b ?

94
Tailoring the ALU to the MIPS

• Need to support the set-on-less-than instruction
  (slt)
• remember slt is an arithmetic instruction
• produces a 1 if rs lt rt and 0 otherwise
• use subtraction (a-b) lt 0 implies a lt b
• Need to support test for equality (beq t5, t6,
  t7)
• use subtraction (a-b) 0 implies a b

95
Supporting slt

• Can we figure out the idea?

all other bits
Use this ALU for most significant bit
96
Supporting slt
97
Test for equality

• Notice control lines0000 and0001 or0010
  add0110 subtract0111 slt1100 NOR

• Note zero is a 1 when the result is zero!

98
Conclusion

• We can build an ALU to support the MIPS
  instruction set
• key idea use multiplexor to select the output
  we want
• we can efficiently perform subtraction using
  twos complement
• we can replicate a 1-bit ALU to produce a 32-bit
  ALU
• Important points about hardware
• all of the gates are always working
• the speed of a gate is affected by the number of
  inputs to the gate
• the speed of a circuit is affected by the number
  of gates in series (on the critical path or
  the deepest level of logic)
• Our primary focus comprehension, however,
• Clever changes to organization can improve
  performance (similar to using better algorithms
  in software)
• We saw this in multiplication, lets look at
  addition now

99
Problem ripple carry adder is slow

• Is a 32-bit ALU as fast as a 1-bit ALU?
• Is there more than one way to do addition?
• two extremes ripple carry and sum-of-products
• Can you see the ripple? How could you get rid of
  it?
• c1 b0c0 a0c0 a0b0
• c2 b1c1 a1c1 a1b1 c2
• c3 b2c2 a2c2 a2b2 c3
• c4 b3c3 a3c3 a3b3 c4
• Not feasible! Why?

100
Carry-lookahead adder

• An approach in-between our two extremes
• Motivation
• If we didn't know the value of carry-in, what
  could we do?
• When would we always generate a carry? gi
  ai bi
• When would we propagate the carry?
  pi ai bi
• Did we get rid of the ripple?
• c1 g0 p0c0
• c2 g1 p1c1 c2
• c3 g2 p2c2 c3
• c4 g3 p3c3 c4 Feasible! Why?

101
Use principle to build bigger adders

• Cant build a 16 bit adder this way... (too big)
• Could use ripple carry of 4-bit CLA adders
• Better use the CLA principle again!

102
ALU Summary

• We can build an ALU to support MIPS addition
• Our focus is on comprehension, not performance
• Real processors use more sophisticated techniques
  for arithmetic
• Where performance is not critical, hardware
  description languages allow designers to
  completely automate the creation of hardware!

103
Chapter Five
104
The Processor Datapath Control

• We're ready to look at an implementation of the
  MIPS
• Simplified to contain only
• memory-reference instructions lw, sw
• arithmetic-logical instructions add, sub, and,
  or, slt
• control flow instructions beq, j
• Generic Implementation
• use the program counter (PC) to supply
  instruction address
• get the instruction from memory
• read registers
• use the instruction to decide exactly what to do
• All instructions use the ALU after reading the
  registers Why? memory-reference? arithmetic?
  control flow?

105
More Implementation Details

• Abstract / Simplified ViewTwo types
  of functional units
• elements that operate on data values
  (combinational)
• elements that contain state (sequential)

106
State Elements

• Unclocked vs. Clocked
• Clocks used in synchronous logic
• when should an element that contains state be
  updated?

cycle time
107
An unclocked state element

• The set-reset latch
• output depends on present inputs and also on past
  inputs

108
Latches and Flip-flops

• Output is equal to the stored value inside the
  element (don't need to ask for permission to
  look at the value)
• Change of state (value) is based on the clock
• Latches whenever the inputs change, and the
  clock is asserted
• Flip-flop state changes only on a clock
  edge (edge-triggered methodology)

"logically true", could mean electrically low
A clocking methodology defines when signals can
be read and written wouldn't want to read a
signal at the same time it was being written
109
D-latch

• Two inputs
• the data value to be stored (D)
• the clock signal (C) indicating when to read
  store D
• Two outputs
• the value of the internal state (Q) and it's
  complement

110
D flip-flop

• Output changes only on the clock edge

111
Our Implementation

• An edge triggered methodology
• Typical execution
• read contents of some state elements,
• send values through some combinational logic
• write results to one or more state elements

112
Register File

• Built using D flip-flops

Do you understand? What is the Mux above?
113
Abstraction

• Make sure you understand the abstractions!
• Sometimes it is easy to think you do, when you
  dont

114
Register File

• Note we still use the real clock to determine
  when to write

115
Simple Implementation

• Include the functional units we need for each
  instruction

Why do we need this stuff?
116
Building the Datapath

• Use multiplexors to stitch them together

117
Control

• Selecting the operations to perform (ALU,
  read/write, etc.)
• Controlling the flow of data (multiplexor inputs)
• Information comes from the 32 bits of the
  instruction
• Example add 8, 17, 18 Instruction
  Format 000000 10001 10010 01000
  00000 100000 op rs rt rd shamt
  funct
• ALU's operation based on instruction type and
  function code

118
Control

• e.g., what should the ALU do with this
  instruction
• Example lw 1, 100(2) 35 2 1
  100 op rs rt 16 bit offset
• ALU control input 0000 AND 0001 OR 0010 add
  0110 subtract 0111 set-on-less-than 1100 NOR
• Why is the code for subtract 0110 and not 0011?

119
Control

• Must describe hardware to compute 4-bit ALU
  control input
• given instruction type 00 lw, sw 01 beq,
  10 arithmetic
• function code for arithmetic
• Describe it using a truth table (can turn into
  gates)

120

121
Control

• Simple combinational logic (truth tables)

122
Our Simple Control Structure

• All of the logic is combinational
• We wait for everything to settle down, and the
  right thing to be done
• ALU might not produce right answer right away
• we use write signals along with clock to
  determine when to write
• Cycle time determined by length of the longest
  path

We are ignoring some details like setup and hold
times
123
Single Cycle Implementation

• Calculate cycle time assuming negligible delays
  except
• memory (200ps), ALU and adders (100ps),
  register file access (50ps)

124
Where we are headed

• Single Cycle Problems
• what if we had a more complicated instruction
  like floating point?
• wasteful of area
• One Solution
• use a smaller cycle time
• have different instructions take different
  numbers of cycles
• a multicycle datapath

125
Multicycle Approach

• We will be reusing functional units
• ALU used to compute address and to increment PC
• Memory used for instruction and data
• Our control signals will not be determined
  directly by instruction
• e.g., what should the ALU do for a subtract
  instruction?
• Well use a finite state machine for control

126
Multicycle Approach

• Break up the instructions into steps, each step
  takes a cycle
• balance the amount of work to be done
• restrict each cycle to use only one major
  functional unit
• At the end of a cycle
• store values for use in later cycles (easiest
  thing to do)
• introduce additional internal registers

127
Instructions from ISA perspective

• Consider each instruction from perspective of
  ISA.
• Example
• The add instruction changes a register.
• Register specified by bits 1511 of instruction.
  
• Instruction specified by the PC.
• New value is the sum (op) of two registers.
• Registers specified by bits 2521 and 2016 of
  the instruction RegMemoryPC1511 lt
  RegMemoryPC2521 op
  RegMemoryPC2016
• In order to accomplish this we must break up the
  instruction. (kind of like introducing variables
  when programming)

128
Breaking down an instruction

• ISA definition of arithmeticRegMemoryPC151
  1 lt RegMemoryPC2521 op
  RegMemoryPC2016
• Could break down to
• IR lt MemoryPC
• A lt RegIR2521
• B lt RegIR2016
• ALUOut lt A op B
• RegIR2016 lt ALUOut
• We forgot an important part of the definition of
  arithmetic!
• PC lt PC 4

129
Idea behind multicycle approach

• We define each instruction from the ISA
  perspective (do this!)
• Break it down into steps following our rule that
  data flows through at most one major functional
  unit (e.g., balance work across steps)
• Introduce new registers as needed (e.g, A, B,
  ALUOut, MDR, etc.)
• Finally try and pack as much work into each step
  (avoid unnecessary cycles)while also trying to
  share steps where possible (minimizes control,
  helps to simplify solution)
• Result Our books multicycle Implementation!

130
Five Execution Steps

• Instruction Fetch
• Instruction Decode and Register Fetch
• Execution, Memory Address Computation, or Branch
  Completion
• Memory Access or R-type instruction completion
• Write-back step INSTRUCTIONS TAKE FROM 3 - 5
  CYCLES!

131
Step 1 Instruction Fetch

• Use PC to get instruction and put it in the
  Instruction Register.
• Increment the PC by 4 and put the result back in
  the PC.
• Can be described succinctly using RTL
  "Register-Transfer Language" IR lt
  MemoryPC PC lt PC 4Can we figure out the
  values of the control signals?What is the
  advantage of updating the PC now?

132
Step 2 Instruction Decode and Register Fetch

• Read registers rs and rt in case we need them
• Compute the branch address in case the
  instruction is a branch
• RTL A lt RegIR2521 B lt
  RegIR2016 ALUOut lt PC
  (sign-extend(IR150) ltlt 2)
• We aren't setting any control lines based on the
  instruction type (we are busy "decoding" it in
  our control logic)

133
Step 3 (instruction dependent)

• ALU is performing one of three functions, based
  on instruction type
• Memory Reference ALUOut lt A
  sign-extend(IR150)
• R-type ALUOut lt A op B
• Branch if (AB) PC lt ALUOut

134
Step 4 (R-type or memory-access)

• Loads and stores access memory MDR lt
  MemoryALUOut or MemoryALUOut lt B
• R-type instructions finish RegIR1511 lt
  ALUOutThe write actually takes place at the
  end of the cycle on the edge

135
Write-back step

• RegIR2016 lt MDR
• Which instruction needs this?

136
Summary
137
Simple Questions

• How many cycles will it take to execute this
  code? lw t2, 0(t3) lw t3, 4(t3) beq
  t2, t3, Label assume not add t5, t2,
  t3 sw t5, 8(t3)Label ...
• What is going on during the 8th cycle of
  execution?
• In what cycle does the actual addition of t2 and
  t3 takes place?

138
(No Transcript)
139
Review finite state machines

• Finite state machines
• a set of states and
• next state function (determined by current state
  and the input)
• output function (determined by current state and
  possibly input)
• Well use a Moore machine (output based only on
  current state)

140
Review finite state machines

• Example B. 37 A friend would like you to
  build an electronic eye for use as a fake
  security device. The device consists of three
  lights lined up in a row, controlled by the
  outputs Left, Middle, and Right, which, if
  asserted, indicate that a light should be on.
  Only one light is on at a time, and the light
  moves from left to right and then from right to
  left, thus scaring away thieves who believe that
  the device is monitoring their activity. Draw
  the graphical representation for the finite state
  machine used to specify the electronic eye. Note
  that the rate of the eyes movement will be
  controlled by the clock speed (which should not
  be too great) and that there are essentially no
  inputs.

141
Implementing the Control

• Value of control signals is dependent upon
• what instruction is being executed
• which step is being performed
• Use the information weve accumulated to specify
  a finite state machine
• specify the finite state machine graphically, or
• use microprogramming
• Implementation can be derived from specification

142
Graphical Specification of FSM

• Note
• dont care if not mentioned
• asserted if name only
• otherwise exact value
• How many state bits will we need?

143
Finite State Machine for Control

• Implementation

144
PLA Implementation

• If I picked a horizontal or vertical line could
  you explain it?

145
ROM Implementation

• ROM "Read Only Memory"
• values of memory locations are fixed ahead of
  time
• A ROM can be used to implement a truth table
• if the address is m-bits, we can address 2m
  entries in the ROM.
• our outputs are the bits of data that the address
  points to.m is the "height", and n is
  the "width"

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
146
ROM Implementation

• How many inputs are there? 6 bits for opcode, 4
  bits for state 10 address lines (i.e., 210
  1024 different addresses)
• How many outputs are there? 16 datapath-control
  outputs, 4 state bits 20 outputs
• ROM is 210 x 20 20K bits (and a rather
  unusual size)
• Rather wasteful, since for lots of the entries,
  the outputs are the same i.e., opcode is often
  ignored

147
ROM vs PLA

• Break up the table into two parts 4 state bits
  tell you the 16 outputs, 24 x 16 bits of
  ROM 10 bits tell you the 4 next state bits,
  210 x 4 bits of ROM Total 4.3K bits of ROM
• PLA is much smaller can share product terms
  only need entries that produce an active
  output can take into account don't cares
• Size is (inputs product-terms) (outputs
  product-terms) For this example
  (10x17)(20x17) 510 PLA cells
• PLA cells usually about the size of a ROM cell
  (slightly bigger)

148
Another Implementation Style

• Complex instructions the "next state" is often
  current state 1

149
Details
150
Microprogramming

• What are the microinstructions ?

151
Microprogramming

• A specification methodology
• appropriate if hundreds of opcodes, modes,
  cycles, etc.
• signals specified symbolically using
  microinstructions
• Will two implementations of the same architecture
  have the same microcode?
• What would a microassembler do?

152
Microinstruction format
153
Maximally vs. Minimally Encoded

• No encoding
• 1 bit for each datapath operation
• faster, requires more memory (logic)
• used for Vax 780 an astonishing 400K of memory!
• Lots of encoding
• send the microinstructions through logic to get
  control signals
• uses less memory, slower
• Historical context of CISC
• Too much logic to put on a single chip with
  everything else
• Use a ROM (or even RAM) to hold the microcode
• Its easy to add new instructions

154
Microcode Trade-offs

• Distinction between specification and
  implementation is sometimes blurred
• Specification Advantages
• Easy to design and write
• Design architecture and microcode in parallel
• Implementation (off-chip ROM) Advantages
• Easy to change since values are in memory
• Can emulate other architectures
• Can make use of internal registers
• Implementation Disadvantages, SLOWER now that
• Control is implemented on same chip as processor
• ROM is no longer faster than RAM
• No need to go back and make changes

155
Historical Perspective

• In the 60s and 70s microprogramming was very
  important for implementing machines
• This led to more sophisticated ISAs and the VAX
• In the 80s RISC processors based on pipelining
  became popular
• Pipelining the microinstructions is also
  possible!
• Implementations of IA-32 architecture processors
  since 486 use
• hardwired control for simpler instructions
  (few cycles, FSM control implemented using PLA
  or random logic)
• microcoded control for more complex
  instructions (large numbers of cycles, central
  control store)
• The IA-64 architecture uses a RISC-style ISA and
  can be implemented without a large central
  control store

156
Pentium 4

• Pipelining is important (last IA-32 without it
  was 80386 in 1985)
• Pipelining is used for the simple instructions
  favored by compilersSimply put, a high
  performance implementation needs to ensure that
  the simple instructions execute quickly, and that
  the burden of the complexities of the instruction
  set penalize the complex, less frequently used,
  instructions

Chapter 7
Chapter 6
157
Pentium 4

• Somewhere in all that control we must handle
  complex instructions
• Processor executes simple microinstructions, 70
  bits wide (hardwired)
• 120 control lines for integer datapath (400 for
  floating point)
• If an instruction requires more than 4
  microinstructions to implement, control from
  microcode ROM