Interpersonal Communication

1

• Chapter 7
• Interpersonal Communication

2
The Process of Interpersonal Communication

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List and explain the six components of the
  communication process.
• List several important differences between
  face-to-face and computer-mediated communication.
• Discuss how interpersonal communication is
  important to adjustment

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The Process of Interpersonal Communication

• Interpersonal communication is an interactional
  process in which one person sends a message to
  another.
• It involves at least two people.
• It is a process involving a series of actions.
• It is not one-way, but bi-directional.

4
The Process of Interpersonal Communication,
continued.

• Components of the Communication Process
• The sender person who initiates the message.
• The receiver person to whom the message is
  targeted.
• The message refers to the information or
  meaning that is transmitted from the sender to
  the receiver.

5
The Process of Interpersonal Communication,
continued.

• Components, continued
• The channel refers to the sensory channel
  through which the message reaches the receiver.
• The noise any stimulus that interferes with
  accurately expressing or understanding a
  message.
• The context environment in which communication
  takes place.

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Technology and Interpersonal Communication

• Electronically mediated communication is
  interpersonal communication that takes places via
  technology.
• Although technology offers convenience, there are
  some disadvantages
• Overlap between work and home.
• Intrusion of private conversations into public
  spaces.
• Absence of non-verbal cues that convey meaning in
  face-to-face interactions.

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Communication and Adjustment

• Effective communication is essential for many
  important aspects of life.
• Good communication enhances satisfaction in
  relationships.
• Poor communication is a major cause of
  relationship break-ups.

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Nonverbal Communication

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List five general principles of nonverbal
  communication.
• Discuss personal space and display rules.
• Discuss what can be discerned from facial cues
  and eye contact.
• Describe the roles of body movement, posture, and
  gestures in communication.

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Forming Impressions of Others

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued.
• Summarize the research findings on touching and
  paralanguage.
• Discuss the difficulty of detecting deception and
  the nonverbal cues linked to deception.
• Describe the significance of nonverbal
  sensitivity in interpersonal interactions.

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Nonverbal Communication

• Nonverbal communication is the transmission of
  meaning from one person to another through means
  or symbols other than words.
• A great deal of information is conveyed in this
  manner, so it is important to recognize the
  general principles of nonverbal communication.

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Nonverbal Communication, continued

• General principles of nonverbal communication.
• It conveys emotions facial expressions and body
  posture can convey how we feel without words.
• It is multichanneled we use facial expressions,
  gestures, eye contact, vocal tone and body
  language.
• It is ambiguous body language can be difficult
  to interpret.

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Nonverbal Communication, continued

• General principles, continued
• It may contradict verbal messages we may say one
  thing, but our body conveys something different.
• It is culture-bound nonverbal signals vary from
  one culture to another.

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Elements of Nonverbal Communication

• Personal space
• Proxemics - is the study of personal space
• Personal space is a zone of space surrounding
  a person that is felt to belong to that
  person.
• Preference for amount of personal space depends
  on
• Culture (see Figure 7.4).
• Status of the individuals involved.
• How well you know the person.

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• Figure 7.4. Interpersonal distance zones.
  According to Edward Hall (1996), people like to
  keep a certain amount of distance between
  themselves and others. The distance that makes
  one feel comfortable depends on whom one is
  interacting with and the nature of the situation.

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Elements, continued

• Facial expression
• Facial expressions convey basic emotions,
  recognized by people around the world.
• However, there are culture-specific norms, called
  display rules, that govern the expression of
  emotion.
• There are also gender differences in expression
  of emotion, with most males showing less
  expression than do females.

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Elements, continued

• Eye contact
• Duration of eye contact is the most meaningful
  aspect of this channel of nonverbal
  communication.
• Among European Americans, high levels of eye
  contact are associated with effective social
  skills and credibility.
• However, eye contact is judged as offensive by
  other cultures (e.g., Native American tribes).

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Elements, continued

• Eye contact, continued
• Eye contact also conveys intensity of feelings.
• In a positive context (e.g., romantic partners)
  long gazes signal loving feelings, but
• In a negative context (e.g., road rage) long
  gazes are interpreted as stares, and they make
  people uncomfortable.
• Finally, eye contact is affected by status and
  gender (see Figure 7.6).

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• Figure 7.6. Visual dominance, status, and
  gender. Women typically show low visual
  dominance (see control condition) because they
  are usually accorded lower status than men
  (Dovidio, et al. 1988). However, when
  researchers placed women in a high-power position
  and measured their visual behavior, women showed
  the high visual dominance pattern and men showed
  the low visual dominance pattern. When men were
  placed in the high-power position, the visual
  dominance patterns reversed. Thus, visual
  dominance seems to be more a function of status
  than of gender.

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Elements, continued

• Body language
• Kinesics is the study of communication through
  body movements.
• An open posture (e.g., arms uncrossed and down
  at sides) conveys a relaxed state, whereas
• A closed posture (arms crossed) conveys
  defensiveness or tension.
• Finally, hand gestures emphasize the words we
  speak.

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Elements, continued

• Touch
• Where and whom we touch conveys a variety of
  meanings, especially status and power.
• There are strong norms that govern where we touch
  friends.
• Female-female pairs touch more often than do
  male-male pairs.
• Cross-gender touch is interpreted as support by
  females, but as power or sexual interest by males.

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Elements, continued

• Paralanguage
• Paralanguage refers to how something is said
  rather than to what is said.
• Variations in vocal emphasis can give different
  meanings to the same words.
• Variations in speech also convey emotions (e.g.,
  rapid speech indicates anxiety or excitement).

22
Elements, continued

• Detecting Deception
• Nonverbal cues that actually indicate deception
  are often different from those most people
  believe indicate deception (see Figure 7.8).
• For example
• Liars often say less, not more.
• Liars are not necessarily good storytellers and
  include less unusual content in stories.
• Liars are more tense and make a more negative
  impression on the listener.

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• Figure 7.8. Detecting deception from nonverbal
  behaviors. This chart summarizes evidence on
  which nonverbal cues are actually associated with
  deception and which are believed to be a sign of
  deception, based on a research review by DePaulo,
  Stone, and Lassiter (1985).

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The Significance of Nonverbal Communication

• Nonverbal sensitivity is the ability to
  accurately encode (express) and decode
  (understand) nonverbal cues.
• Woman tend to be better encoders and decoders.
• However, this may stem from higher motivation.
• Thus, anyone can improve their nonverbal skills.

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Toward More Effective Communication

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List five suggestions for creating a positive
  interpersonal climate.
• Give five steps involved in making small talk.
• Explain how self-disclosure is important to
  adjustment.
• Cite some ways to reduce the risks of
  self-disclosure.

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Toward More Effective Communication

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued.
• Describe the role of self-disclosure in
  relationship development.
• Discuss cultural and gender differences in
  self-disclosure.
• Cite four points good listeners need to keep in
  mind.

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Toward More Effective Communication

• Tips for creating a positive interpersonal
  climate
• Learn to feel and communicate empathy.
• Practice withholding judgment.
• Strive for honesty.
• Approach others as equals.
• Express your opinions tentatively.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Conversation skills five steps for making
  successful small talk
• Indicate you are open to conversation by
  commenting on your surroundings.
• Introduce yourself.
• Select a topic others can relate to.
• Keep the conversation ball rolling.
• Make a smooth exit.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Self-Disclosure the act of sharing information
  about yourself with another person is
  important to adjustment for several reasons.
• Sharing problems with others plays a key role in
  mental health.
• Emotional self-disclosures lead to feelings of
  closeness.
• Self-disclosure in romantic relationships is
  associated with relationship satisfaction.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Self-disclosure, continued
• Reducing the risks of self disclosure.
• Disclose information to others gradually.
• Dont disclose more than the other is willing to
  disclose.
• Watch for nonverbal stop cues from others.
• Be aware of risks associated with electronic
  disclosures.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Self-disclosure, continued
• Self-disclosure and relationship development.
• Self-disclosure varies over the course of
  relationships.
• At the beginning, there are high levels of mutual
  self-disclosure, which taper off as the
  relationship becomes established.
• In established relationships, disclosures are not
  necessarily reciprocated.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Relationship development, continued
• Movement away from reciprocal self-disclosures in
  established relationships occurs for two reasons
• There is more of a need for support than a
  reciprocal disclosure from the other person.
• The need for privacy outweighs the need for
  mutual self-disclosure.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Self-disclosure, continued
• Culture, gender, and self-disclosure.
• Personal self-disclosures occur more in
  individualistic cultures, whereas disclosures
  about ones group membership are the norm in
  collectivist cultures.
• Females tend to disclose more than do males, and
  this trend is strongest within same-gender
  friendships.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Tips for Effective Listening.
• Signal your interest in the speaker by using
  nonverbal cues
• Face the speaker squarely.
• Lean toward them.
• Try not to cross arms and legs.
• Maintain eye contact.

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More Effective Communication, continued

• Tips for Effective Listening, continued
• Hear the other person out before you respond.
• Engage in active listening by
• Asking for clarification if information is
  ambiguous.
• Paraphrasing what the person said by stating the
  speakers main points back to them to ensure you
  have interpreted correctly.
• Pay attention to the others nonverbal cues.

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Communication Problems

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Discuss four responses to communication
  apprehension.
• Describe five barriers to effective communication.

37
Communication Problems

• Communication apprehension or anxiety caused
  by having to talk with others is usually
  followed by one of four responses
• Avoidance choosing not to participate.
• Withdrawal clamming up in conversation you
  cannot escape.
• Disruption the inability to make fluent
  statements.
• Overcommunication (e.g., nervous speech).

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Communication Problems, continued

• Barriers to effective communication.
• Defensiveness excessive concern with
  protecting oneself from being hurt.
• Motivational distortion hearing what you want
  to hear.
• Self-preoccupation being so self-absorbed the
  other person cannot equally participate.
• Game playing manipulating the interaction, or
  concealing your real motives for a selfish
  purpose.

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Interpersonal Conflict

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Cite some positive outcomes associated with
  constructive interpersonal conflict.
• Describe five types of conflicts.
• Describe five personal styles of dealing with
  interpersonal conflict.
• List six tips for coping effectively with
  interpersonal conflict.

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Interpersonal Conflict

• Beliefs about conflict.
• Most people believe any kind of conflict is bad.
• However, avoiding conflict is usually
  counter-productive and leads to a
  self-perpetuating cycle (see Figure 7.11).
• It is better to confront conflicts constructively
  so that issues can be aired and resolved.

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• Figure 7.11. The conflict avoidance cycle.
  Avoiding conflict can lead to a self-perpetuating
  cycle (1) people think of conflict as bad, (2)
  they get nervous about a conflict they are
  experiencing, (3) they avoid the conflict as long
  as possible, (4) the conflict gets out of control
  and must be confronted, and (5) they handle the
  confrontation badly. In turn, this negative
  experience sets the stage for avoiding conflict
  the next timeusually with the same negative
  outcome. (Adapted from Lulofs, 1994)

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Interpersonal Conflict, continued

• Five Types of Conflict
• Pseudoconflict false conflict from game
  playing.
• Fact-based conflict disagreement about factual
  issues.
• Policy conflict disagreement about how to
  handle a situation.
• Value-based conflict disagreement that occurs
  when people hold opposing values.
• Ego-based conflict emphasis on winning over
  resolving the conflict.

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Interpersonal Conflict, continued

• Styles of managing conflict
• Two dimensions (concern for self, and concern for
  others) underlie five distinct patterns of
  managing conflict (see Figure 7.12).
• Avoiding/Withdrawing (low concern for self and
  others).
• Accommodating (low concern for self, high concern
  for others).
• Competing/Forcing (high concern for self, low
  concern for others).

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• Figure 7.12. Five styles of handling
  interpersonal conflict. In dealing with discord,
  individuals typically prefer one of five styles.
  The two dimensions of concern for self and
  concern for others underlie each of the five
  styles.

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Interpersonal Conflict, continued

• Styles of Managing Conflict, continued
• Compromising (moderate concern for self and
  others).
• Collaborating (high concern for self and others).
• While compromising simply involves splitting the
  difference, collaborating involves finding a
  solution that is maximally satisfying to both
  parties.

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Interpersonal Conflict, continued

• Dealing Constructively with Conflict
• Make communication honest and open.
• Use specific behavior to describe another
  persons annoying habits rather than general
  statements about their personality.
• Avoid loaded words.
• Use a positive approach and help the other person
  save face.

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Interpersonal Conflict, continued

• Dealing Constructively with Conflict, continued
• Limit complaints to recent behavior and to the
  current situation.
• Assume responsibility for your own feelings and
  preferences.
• Try to use an assertive communication style.

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APPLICATION Developing an Assertive
Communication Style

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Differentiate assertive communication from
  submissive and aggressive communication.
• List five steps that lead to more assertive
  communication.

49
Application Developing an Assertive
Communication Style

• The nature of assertiveness.
• Assertiveness involves acting in your own best
  interests by expressing your thoughts and
  feelings directly and honestly.
• In contrast, submissive communication involves
  giving in to others.
• Individuals who use this style report feeling bad
  about being pushovers.

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Developing an Assertive Style, continued

• The Nature of Assertiveness, continued
• Aggressive communication is different from
  assertiveness and focuses on saying and getting
  what you want at the expense of others.
• Assertive communication is more adaptive than
  either submissive, or aggressive communication,
  and is a skill that can be learned through
  assertiveness training.

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Developing an Assertive Style, continued

• Steps in assertiveness training
• Understand what assertive communication is.
• Dont forget about nonverbal cues.
• Monitor your assertive communication.
• Identify when you are not assertive, find out who
  intimidates you, on what topics, and in which
  situations.

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Developing an Assertive Style, continued

• Steps in Assertiveness Training, continued
• Observe a models assertive communication.
• Practice assertive communication by using
• Covert rehearsal imagine using assertiveness in
  a situation that requires it.
• Role playing ask a friend to play the role of
  an antagonist so you can practice.
• Adopt an assertive attitude.