Argument

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Argument Rhetoric

• Raymond M. VinceComposition II
• February 2006

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What is Rhetoric?

• Rhetoric is the Art of Persuasion
• But how do we persuade others?
• Rhetoric uses various strategies or appeals.
• The Greeks among the first to study Rhetoric.
• Especially Aristotle in his Art of Rhetoric
• Aristotle identifies three persuasive strategies.
• These are the appeals to ethos, pathos, and
  logos.

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What are these Appeals?

• Ethos The Appeal to Credibility Gk.
  character, custom
• Pathos The Appeal to the Emotions Values
  Gk. suffering, passion, feeling
• Logos The Appeal to the Reason Gk. word,
  thought, reason
• ????, ?????, ?????,

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How can we evaluate Rhetoric?

• Questions to ask
• Who is the speaker/writer? Who is the audience?
• What credibility has speaker/writer established?
• What emotions or values are being appealed to?
• What kind of claim is being made?
• What evidence/reasons are relevant to support the
  claim?
• What assumptions on both sides - may be hidden?

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Evaluating Ethos

• Who is the speaker/writer?
• What position does he/she have?
• What kind of authority does he/she have?
• Is it academic, political, medical, religious,
  etc?
• Is he/she trustworthy or is there a credibility
  gap?
• Is the language legitimate or manipulative?
• POV? Inclusive, demeaning, or not involved?

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Evaluating Pathos

• What kind of emotional appeal is being used?
• Which emotions are being stirred?
• Nostalgia, hate, envy, love, prejudice, or fear?
• What values are assumed or appealed to?
• Is the appeal legitimate or manipulative?
• Emotional appeals are powerful. Why?
• Because we act only when emotions are stirred.

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What is Logos?

• Logos is a rational argument, a logical
  relationship between a claim, the reasons,
  the assumptions.
• Reasons
• Claim
• Assumptions
• if then

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Evaluating Logos

• Is the claim a well-formed, precise idea?
• Can the idea be expressed in a coherent sentence?
• Answer a question relevant to the community?
• Justified or supported by reasons evidence?
• Are these reasons acceptable to the community?
• Are the hidden assumptions also acceptable?

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Failures in Logos

• Common fallacies in using logic
• Begging the Question Assuming your conclusion.
• Complex Question Stopped beating wife yet?
• Hasty Generalization Inadequate evidence.
• Post hoc, ergo propter hoc After this, because
  this.
• Stacking the deck Ignoring counter-evidence.
• Non sequitur The claim does not follow the
  evidence.
• False dilemma Only extreme options either A
  or B.

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Failures in Ethos Pathos

• Common fallacies in using ethos or pathos
• Ad hominem personal attack not issues.
• Guilt by association stereotyping group.
• Poisoning the well biased argument.
• False authority no genuine credibility.
• Ad populum bandwagon appeal to prejudice etc.
• Threat/Reward using bribery to persuade.
• Red Herring raising irrelevant, emotional
  issues.

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Statistical Arguments

• Statistical arguments common in science etc.
• But statistics can be misused prove deceptive.
• What kind of average mean, median, mode?
• How much deviation or scatter in results?
• Conscious or unconscious bias in evidence?
• Is there information missing from evidence?
• What conclusions can legitimately be drawn?

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Summary Sources

• Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.
• Rhetoric uses the appeals of logos, ethos,
  pathos.
• Logos involves a claim, reasons, assumptions.
• We should evaluate logos, ethos, pathos.
• We need to recognize failures in reasoning
  fallacies.
• Gary L. Hatch. Arguing in Communities. 3rd Ed.
  New York McGraw-Hill, 2003. Chapters 2-4.
• X. J. Kennedy et. Al. The Bedford Guide for
  College Writers 6th ed. Boston Bedford/St.
  Martins, 2002.