The Rhetoric of Argument

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The Rhetoric of Argument

• White and Billings
• The Well-Crafted Argument

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Monty Python's "Argument Clinic"
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Nature and Process

• The more we know about argument what it
  involves, how a strong argument is constructed,
  and what a weak argument lacks the more likely
  we are to benefit from this liberty.

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• Informal versus Formal
• Casual arguments often consist of little more
  than exchanges of opinions or unsupported
  generalizations
• Formal arguments are expected to include evidence
  in support of generalizations if they are to
  succeed in making strong points, solving real
  problems, or changing minds.

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• Three basic ingredients
• Relevant information
• Convincing Evidence
• Pattern of Reasoning
• Definition of Argument
• A form of discourse in which the writer or
  speaker tries to persuade an audience to accept,
  reject, or think a certain way about a problem
  that cannot be solved by scientific or
  mathematical reasoning alone.

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• Opinion versus Argument
• Opinion Public flogging of robbers would be a
  more effective deterrent than jailing them.
• Opinion yeah, probably. or No way that
  would contribute to a culture of violence.
• Argument Supporting the statement with
  statistics that show a correlation between public
  punishment and the crime rate
• A good argument takes time to prepare and also
  guides the audience through a logical
  step-by-step line of reasoning from thesis to
  conclusion.

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• Definition of Argument Breakdown
• a pattern of reasoning
• logical progression that leads the reader from
  thesis to support of thesis to conclusion
• unfamiliar terms or concepts are carefully
  defined or explained and background information
  is given to enable audience to understand larger
  context
• EX SUVs are selling better than subcompacts
  (DOES NOT ESTABLISH A VALID ARGUMENT)
• EX The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly
  increasing gasoline consumption nationally, which
  in turn is leading to greater dependence on
  foreign oil. (ESTABLISHES A VALID ARGUMENT)

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• Definition of Argument Breakdown
• reinforced by detailed evidence
• any assertion must be backed up with specific,
  compelling evidence that is accurate, timely,
  relevant, and sufficient.
• Evidence can be data derived from surveys,
  experiments, observations, firsthand field
  investigations (statistical evidence), or from
  expert opinion (authoritative evidence).

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• Definition of Argument Breakdown
• that tries to persuade the audience to accept
  the claim
• the ultimate goal to convince the audience that
  arguers point of view is a sensible one, worthy
  of serious consideration if not outright
  acceptance.
• Often times appeals are used to reinforce
  evidence

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• Exercise 1.1
• Formulate an answer for 2 a,b,c,d

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• Communicating with Purpose
• Communication (Aristotelian) Triangle (Audience,
  Writer, Subject)
• Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Writer, Subject,
  Purpose)
• Three Basic Kinds of Communication
• Referential (Expository)
• Expressive
• Argumentative

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• Purpose in an Argumentative Context
• The purpose is the reason why you want your
  audience to agree with your claim and take
  whatever actions is necessary to carry it out.

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• Role Play
• Teacher X Student X, your support seems a little
  limited doesnt seem to be any umpf to your
  argument, where can we add more to this paper?
• Student I dont know.
• Teacher X Well, what was your purpose for
  writing this paper?
• Student You assigned it.
• This is a PROBLEM!
• You should find a professional or intrinsic
  purpose for writing on the topic. This is how
  your scope will be limited and your essay will be
  full of passion and energy.

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• Audience in an Argumentative Context
• Your audience for all papers, unless otherwise
  noted, is Academic.
• The purpose of academic writing is
  knowledge-sharing or idea-sharing
• Here is what scholars have said, now here is my
  two-bits

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• Academic Arguments
• Specialized precise language
• Formal or semi-formal tone
• All primary or secondary sources explicitly cited
  and documented, using standard formats
• Contributions by other scholars in the field are
  discussed formally and in detail
• Scholarly audience

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• Writer in an Argumentative Context
• The Writers role is determined by the other
  elements in the Rhetorical Rhombus.

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• Subject in an Argumentative Context
• The role of subject differs in each argument
  based on the other elements of the Rhombus

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The Process of Composing

• Read, Read, Read Immerse yourself in the
  subject then you may be reading to work through
  the writing process.

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Exercise 1.3

• Question 2 What appeals are at work in each of
  the following passages?

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Organizing the Argument

• Introduce the topic
• The situation in the narrative
• The subject matter to be explained in an
  exposition or explanation the problem in an
  argument
• Present the particulars of the situation
• the sequencing of incidents in a narrative
• elements of a phenomenon in an exposition or
  explanation
• the nature of the problem, followed by the body
  of evidence, in an argument
• Conclude
• The outcome in a narrative
• The whole picture in an explanation
• The interpretation, assessment, and
  recommendations in an argument

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Organizing the Argument

• Classical Model
• Begins with introduction that establishes the
  problem and states the thesis
• Analyzes the evidence and refutes opposing views
  in light of the evidence collected
• Draws conclusions and provides recommendations
• Toulmin Model
• Value Dependent, truth tested according to the
  values
• Rogerian Model
• One shifts the emphasis to the social act of
  negotiating difference through argument
• Value Dependent but it must be negotiated
  cooperatively

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Composing Openings

• Occasional Opening
• Reference to current event
• Startling Opening
• Use of unexpected information
• Anecdotal Opening
• Brief story to engage the readers attention
• Analytical Opening
• Launches immediately into a critical discussion

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Exercise 1.4

• Question 1,2,3

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Read Plato 650-657Interrupted Reading
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Composing the Body of the Argument

• The Promise made to the readers is fulfilled in
  the body
• The subject portion of the Rhombus the detailed
  support facts, examples, illustrations as
  well as the emotional, logical, ethical appeals.

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Composing Conclusions

• A good conclusion enables readers to grasp the
  full impact of the argument.
• If the intro states the claim, the body argues
  for the validity of the claim by citing evidence
  for it, the conclusion encapsulates all those
  points of evidence
• Reflect back on the paper
• Broaden the scope beyond your paper
• Reinforce the readers emotional involvement
• Feelings of security, hope, happiness,
  self-confidence, optimism, or overall well-being

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Exercise 1.5

• Discuss the weakness/strengths of Body and
  Conclusion

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Revising the Argument

• Checklist
• Attend closely to the ways you
• Presented the problem
• Stated your claims
• Reported evidence and testimony
• Represented challenging views
• Drawn inferences
• Reached conclusions

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Revision Tasks

• Holistic (start a different draft)
• Content (ideas and evidence)
• Organizational (logical progression)
• Stylistic (syntax, tone, diction)
• Proofreading (line-by-line error check)

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Visual Aids

• Headings and subheadings
• Images (must contribute)