EDM 6209 Policy Studies in Education

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EDM 6209Policy Studies in Education

• 12
• The Normative Context of Policy Studies
• Values

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Distinction of Values in Public Policy Discourse

• Prima Facie Values and value priority in policy
  conflict
• In the context of value theory, prima facie
  can be taken to mean unless some more important
  values takes priority. (Ellis, 1998, p.11)
• The logic of prima facie is essential tools in
  setting priorities to value conflict in public
  policy argumentation

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Distinction of Values in Public Policy Discourse

• The distinction of intrinsic and extrinsic values
• An intrinsic value can be defined as something
  that is valuable for its own sake. (Ellis, p.12)
• An extrinsic value is valuable not for its own
  sake, but because it facilitates getting or
  accomplishing something that is valuable for its
  own sake. (p.12)

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Distinction of Values in Public Policy Discourse

• Typology of value conflicts in public policy
• Conflict between two extrinsic values
• Conflict between an extrinsic value and an
  intrinsic value
• Conflict between two intrinsic value

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Ralph Elliss Conception of Five Basic Types of
Value Systems

• Egoistic hedonism
• Utilitarianism
• Justice
• Distributive justice
• Redistributive justice
• Relational justice
• Personalism
• Ethical relativism

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Ralph Elliss Conception of Five Basic Types of
Value Systems

• Egoistic hedonism It "advocates the simplest of
  all value system. It contains only intrinsic
  value one's own personal happiness." (Ellis,
  1998, p. 15)
• Utilitarianism "Utilitarians are traditionally
  taken as agreeing with egoistic hedonists that
  the only intrinsic value is happiness, but rather
  than believing that only one's own happiness
  matters, they believe that the general happiness
  should be matimized (i.e. the greatest possible
  amount of happiness for the greatest possible
  number of people should be achieved). (Ellis,
  1998, p. 17)

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Ralph Elliss Conception of Five Basic Types of
Value Systems

• Personalism (Self-actualizationism) It advocates
  that self-actualization, that is, the
  opportunity to actualize ones potential as a
  human being in a full sense is the intrinsic
  value. It is therefore based on the assumption
  that the purpose of human life is not merely to
  be happy, contented, or in an enjoyable frame of
  mind, but also to exercise certain capacities or
  the human mind (or soul), which cannot be
  understood in terms of a happiness-maximizing
  motivation theory. (p. 26)

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Ralph Elliss Conception of Five Basic Types of
Value Systems

• Ethical relativism Ethical relativists believe
  simply that there is no objectively true answer
  to the question as to which things have intrinsic
  value. Instead, value beliefs are not really
  beliefs at all, but only expressions of emotion
  or cultural traditions. (p. 27)

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Ralph Elliss Conception of Five Basic Types of
Value Systems

• Ethical relativism
• What is abundantly clear is that in everyday
  life as in moral philosophy the replacement of
  Aristotelian or Christian teleology by a
  definition of virture in terms of the passions is
  not so much or at all the replacement of one set
  of criteria by another, but rather a movement
  towards and into a situation where there are no
  longer any clear criteria. (MacIntyre, 2007,
  235-36)
• The two concepts which provide the necessary
  background for a traditional account of virtues,
  the concept of narrative unity and the concept of
  practice (with goods internal to itself), were
  themselves displaced during the same period (i.e.
  from the middle ages until the present).
  (MacIntyre, 2007, p.226)

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Deborah Stones Conception of Intrinsic Values in
Public Policy

• Equality Same size share for everybody.
• Efficiency Getting the most output for a given
  input.
• Security Minimum requirements for biological
  survival.
• Liberty People should be free to do what they
  want unless their activity harms other people.

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Joseph Kahnes Conception of Intrinsic Values in
Education Policy

• Utilitarianism Education policy for attainment
  the greatest happiness of the greatest number
• Egalitarianism Education policy as equal
  treatment for all citizens
• Communitarianism Education policy for the
  attainment of common good and common will
• Humanism Education policy as project of
  self-actualization, self-realization and
  self-infinitization

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Techno-efficient conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in education outcome Acquisition of
• Skills and competences, which can be
  standardized, quantified, calculable, predictable
  and controllable
• Skills and competences, which are employable,
  marketable and convertible in money terms
• Skills and competences, which are governable
• Quality in learning and teaching processes
• Students are materials, which can be value-added
• Teachers are workers, who can be benchmarked
• Teaching and learning are processes, which can be
  audited in time-motion terms

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Techno-Efficient conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in school organizations
• School organizations are structures, which can be
  standardized and benchmarked
• School organizations are processes, which can be
  audited with standardized indicators
• School organizations are cultures, which can be
  measures with school ethos checklists
• Assumption of prefect causality in education
  enterprises in techno-scientific conception of
  quality in education

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Empathetic-practical conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in education outcome Attainment of
• Practical efficacy in interaction with fellow
  beings
• Empathetic understanding in social interactions
• Social identification and integration in
  particular human communities
• Quality in learning and teaching processes
• Teachers as professionals working in communal
  bonds of intellectuality, practicality and trust
• Teachers and students are in professional-client
  relationships, which are bonded by empathetic
  understanding and trust
• Teaching and learning are practical interactions
  of uncertainty, which can not be lock-stepped
  into calculable and controllable processes

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Empathetic-practical conception of quality in
  education
• Quality in school organizations
• Schools as communities of empathetic
  understanding and caring between the elderly and
  offspring
• Schools as professional communities of
  intellectuality, practicality and trust
• Assumption of education as an uncertain practice
  of Reflective Practitioners (Schon, 1983)

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Emancipatory conception of quality in education
• Quality in education outcome Capacities to
• To excel beyond the current state of being
• To speculate
• To better the status quo
• Quality in learning and teaching processes
• Teachers are transformative intellectuals working
  for the betterment of the status quo and the
  coming generation
• Students are potentials to be excel
• Teaching and learning are experimental,
  surprising and risk-taking processes of
  liberating speculative spirits

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Policy of Quality Education in Search of
Intrinsic Value

• Emancipatory conception of quality in education
• Quality in school organizations
• Schools as liberating communities of human
  potentials
• Schools as communities of praxis
• Assumption of education as risk-taking praxis of
  speculative or even revolutionary spirits

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Prima Facie Value in Education Policy

• Equality
• Justice
• Care and
• Trust

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Formal Definition
• Grammar of equality As formal definition of
  equality applies to concrete social situations,
  it has to adopted to at least five structural
  problems and these problems must be anaticipated
  wherever equality is a goal or principle of
  social policy. They are (1) complex social
  classification, (2) plural allocation, (3)
  indivisibilities, (4) human differences, and (5)
  relativity. (Rae, 1981, p. 14)

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Douglas Raes structural grammar of equality
• Subject of equality Equality for whom
• Individual-regarding equality
• Simple subject
• Segmental subject ( )
• Bloc-regarding equality Bloc-equal subject (
  )
• Domain of equality - Equal what? Do X's domain
  of allocation (supply) cover Y's domain of
  account (demand)
• Straightforward equality
• Marginal equality
• Global equality

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Objective of equality
• Direct equality (of result)
• Equality of opportunity
• Means-regarding equal opportunity
• Prospect-regarding equal opportunity
• Value of equality
• Lot-regarding equality
• Person-regarding equality
• Utility-based equality
• End based equality
• Need-based equality
• Relativity of equality
• Absolute equality
• Relative equality

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Application of Raes structural grammar equality
  on education
• Classification of students
• Simple individual equality Universal, free and
  compulsory education
• Segment-subject equality Special education
• Block-regarding equality Positive-discrimination
  education for racial minorities, the
  socioeconomic disadvantaged and female
• Distribution of educational resources
• Marginal equality 9-year compulsory education
• Global equality Positive discrimination education

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Application of Raes structural grammar equality
  on education
• Equality of educational opportunity rather result
• Means-regarding equality of educational
  opportunity
• Equality of educational access
• Equality of education process
• Prospect-regarding equality of educational
  opportunity
• Equality of education output
• Equality of education outcome

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Equality of educational value
• Lot-regarding equality of education Principle of
  respect, compulsory education common-school and
  common-curriculum policies
• Personal-regarding equality of education
• Utility-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• End-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• Need-based personal-regarding equality of
  education
• Principle of praise and fair educational sifting
  and selection
• Relativity of equality
• Absolute educational equality
• Relative educational equality

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Subject of Equality
Domain of Equality
Objective of Equality
Value of Equality
Relativity of Equality
Lot- Regarding equality
Simple subject equality
Straight- forward equality
Direct equality (for result)
Utility- based equality
Absolute equality
Mean-regarding equal opportunity

Segment subject equality
Marginal equality
End- based equality
Prospect-regarding equal opportunity
Bloc- regarding equality
Global equality
Need- based equality
Relative equality

• X 3 x 3 x 4 x
  2
• 216

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Equality as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• James Colemans conception of equality of
  educational opportunity in the US
• Means-regarding equal opportunity
• Equality of educational access
• Equality of education process
• Prospect-regarding equal opportunity
• Equality educational output
• Equality of education outcome

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Aristotle's formal definition of justice
• Treating equal equally or treating unequal
  unequally is just.
• Treating equal unequally or treating unequal
  equally is unjust.

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• The basic contradiction of justice in education
• Universal education provision as one of the equal
  treatments for all citizens
• Meritocratic education output as unequal
  treatments by entitlement

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls A Theory of Justice
• The first principle of justice
• Each person is to have an equal right to the
  most extensive basic liberty compatible with a
  similar liberty for others. (p.60)
• The principle applies to the basic liberties of
  citizens, which are roughly speaking, political
  liberty (the right to vote and to be eligible for
  public office) together with freedom of speech
  and assembly liberty of conscience and freedom
  of thought freedom of person along with the
  right to hold personal property and freedom from
  arbitrary arrest and seizure as defined by the
  concept of the rule of law. (p.61)
• These liberties are all required to be equal by
  the first principle, since citizens of a just
  society are to have the same basic rights. (p.61)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls Theory of Justice
• The second principle of justice
• This principle applies to the distribution of
  income and wealth, and authority and
  responsibility, or chains of command
• This principle stipulates that social and
  economic inequality are to be arranged so that
  they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to
  everyones advantage, and (b) attached to
  positions and offices open to all. (p.60)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• John Rawls Theory of Justice
• The second principle of justice

All social primary goods liberty and
opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of
self-respect are to be distributed equally
unless an unequal distribution of any or all of
these goods is to the advantage of the least
favored. (p.303)
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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• The ambiguity in the principles of justice in
  education
• Applicability of the first principle to
  education Basic education as basic right of
  citizens in just society
• Applicability of the second principle to
  education Unequal distribution of educational
  opportunities according to equally open and
  everyones advantage

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Distinctive between distributional and relational
  justice
• Distributive justice
• The subject matter of justice is the basic
  structure of society, or more exactly, the way in
  which the major social institutions distribute
  fundamental rights and duties and determine the
  distribution of advantages from social
  co-operation. (Rawls, 1972, p. 7)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Distinctive between distributional and relational
  justice
• Relational justice
• Relational justice is about nature and
  ordering of social relations, the formal and
  rules which govern how members of society treat
  each other both on a macro-level and at a micro
  interpersonal social level.

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Distinction between distributional and relational
  justice
• Relational justice
• Communitarian mutuality Relational justice as
  social trust, social solidarity and social
  capital
• Politics of recognition Relational justice as
  social recognition
• Politics of recognition demands a commitment to
  respond to others in a way which does not injure
  their positive conceptions of themselves, and to
  avoid practicing the power of surveillance,
  control and discipline upon others. (Gewirtz,
  2001, p.58)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Under the conception of justice, injustice
  refers primarily to two forms of disabling
  constraints, oppression and domination. While
  these constraints include distributive patterns,
  they also involve matters which cannot easily be
  assimilated to the logic of distribution
  decisionmaking procedures, division of labor, and
  culture. (Young, 1990, p. 39)
• Young, I.M. (1990) Justice and the Politics of
  Difference.

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Exploitation
• Marginalization
• Powerless
• Cultural imperialism
• Violence

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Exploitation
• The injustice of exploitation consists in
  social processes that bring about a transfer of
  energies from one group to another to produce
  unequal distributions, and in the way in which
  social institutions enable a few to accumulate
  while they constraint many more. (Young, 1990,
  p.53) These exploitation social institution may
  appears in class, gender and/or racial relation.

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Marginalization
• Marginalization is perhaps the most dangerous
  form of oppression. A whole category of people is
  expelled from useful participation in social life
  and thus potentially subjected to severe material
  deprivation and even extermination. (p. 53)
• Even if marginals were provided a comfortable
  material life within institutions that respected
  their freedom and dignity, injustices of
  marginality would remain in the form of
  uselessness, boredom, and lack of self-respect.
  (p.55)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Powerless
• It is a status in which the powerless lack the
  authority, status, and sense of self. (p.57) As
  a result, they will experience inhibition in the
  development of ones capacities, lack of
  decisionmaking power in ones working life, and
  exposure to disrespectful treatment because of
  the status one occupies. (p.58)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Cultural imperialism
• Cultural imperialism involves the
  universalization of a groups experience and
  culture, and its establishment as the norm. Some
  groups have exclusive or primary access to the
  means of interpretation and communication in a
  society. This, then, is the injustice of
  cultural imperialism that the oppressed groups
  own experience and interpretation of social life
  finds little expression that touches the domanint
  culture, while that same culture imposes on the
  oppressed group its experience and interpretation
  of social life. (p.59-60)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Justice, oppression and stratification Iris
  Youngs five faces of oppression
• Violence
• Members of some groups live with the knowledge
  that they must fear random, unprovoked attacks on
  their persons or property, which have no motive
  but to damage, humiliate, or destroy the person.
  (p.61)

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Justice as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• In search of just education
• Education as equalizing project
• Education as accommodating project
• Education as empowering project
• Education as recognition of multiculturalism
• Education as a pacification project

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings in her work The Challenge to Care in
  School An Altenrative Approach to Education
  (2005) defines care as a relational concept. In a
  caring relation, it is a connection or encounter
  between two human beings - a carer and a
  recipient of care, or cared-for. In order for the
  relation to be called caring, both parties must
  contribute to it in characteristic way. (p.15)

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings The Challenge to Care in School An
  Altenrative Approach to Education (2005)
• On the part of the carer, he supposes to be in
  the state of conscious, which can be
  characterized as (i) engrossment and (ii)
  motivational displacement
• By engrossment, it indicates an open,
  nonselective receptivity to the cared-for. Weil
  characterizes this state of consciousness as
  follow. The soul empties itself of all its own
  contents in order to receive into itself the
  being it is looking at, just as he is, in all his
  truth. Only he who is capable of attending can do
  this. (Weil, 1950 quoted in Noddings, 2005,
  p.16)
• By motivational displacement, it specifies the
  disposition that the carer is ready to redirect
  his motive energy away from his own concern and
  project and to replace it the project of the
  cared-for.

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings
• On the part of the cared-for, they have to
  express explicitly the reception, recognition,
  and response to the caring in the ways which are
  found appropriate in a given society.

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings
• Noddings further indicates that caring is not
  just a relational concept, it also indicates
  capacity, that the capacities of the carer and
  the cared-for. Teacher-student relation is by
  definition a caring relation
• On the part of the teachers, it part of their job
  to create caring relation, in which they must
  first of all care for whether students understand
  the subject matter as well as their interests,
  motives, concerns and feelings.
• One the part of the students, they are to learnt
  the capacities to be the cared-for. As most of
  the children grow up in affluent societies and
  well-off families (especially those from
  single-child families), they do not only lack the
  capacities to indicate (not to mention
  appreciate) reception, recognition and response
  to caring, but may also demonstrate a kind of
  could-care-less attitudes towards carers, such
  as parents, teachers, etc.

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings
• Apart from caring relations between human being,
  caring relation can also extend to other
  creatures, ideas and objects. They include
• Care for animal rights, environmental rights and
  ecological sustainability
• Intellectual care for ideas, academic disciplines
  and pursuit for truth
• Care for material objects, especially those
  relics, which preserve collective and communal
  solidarities, cultural meanings and collective
  memories.

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Nel Noddings
• Lastly, In paraphrasing Martin Heidegger, the
  German philosopher, Noddings underlines that
  caring education should also emphasizes helping
  children to care for themselves and to develop
  the capacities of caring their own identities,
  existences, and well beings.

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Katchadourians conception of care
• Caring can be construed the natural piety of
  humankind a natural piety prior in time to the
  idea of a duty, including a moral duty to care
  about others - spontaneous, unreasoning,
  unquestioning caring -flowing from love and
  affection for those close to oneself and, even
  sometimes, not close to oneself. (Katchadourian,
  1999, p. 61)

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Katchadourians conception of care
• Caring includes a gamut of kinds of actions and
  activities designed to serve the others
  interest. (p.62) Hence, caring about others
  comprises of a variety of important traditional
  moral virtues, including
• concern and responsibleness,
• kindness and compassion,
• sensitivity and considerateness,
• helpful and supportiveness,
• cooperativeness and solidarity,
• selflessness and great eagerness to further the
  others welfare and happiness. (p. 64)

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Care as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• Knowledge and empathetic understanding in caring
• Caring requires proper knowledge not only of the
  best means for the realization of the others
  real interest, but also proper knowledge or
  understanding of the interest itself. (p. 66)
• Empathetic understanding, or existential
  knowledge about the other, it is considerably
  more than simply being in possession of the
  abstract intellectual information about her that
  is call knowledge about. (p.67) Accordingly,
  empathetic understanding consists of at least
• understanding of the other as a concrete other
  as unique person in a specific context and
  circumstance, at a particular time. (p. 67)
• awareness of the others important attachment
  and relationships, which define ones self and
  identity. (p. 67)

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Trust as Prima Facie Value in Education Policy
Argumentation

• In concluding their findings generated from a
  large-scale study of the Chicago School Reform,
  Anthony Bryk and Barbara Schneider assert that
  trust in schools is the core resource for school
  improvement. (2002)
• Typology of social trust
• Organic trust in family institution
• Contractual trust in market institution
• Relational trust in school institution
• Relational trust in school institution

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12The Normative Context of Policy Studies Values

• END