Standards%20for%20Measurement

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Standards for Measurement
Preparation for College Chemistry Columbia
University Department of Chemistry
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The Scientific Method
http//antoine.fsu.umd.edu/chem/senese/101/intro/s
cimethod-quiz.shtml
Observations
Laws
(analysis)
Hypothesis
(explanation)
Experiment
(measurement)
(analysis)
Theory (Model)
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Measurement and Interpretations
Direct Measurement
Interpretation Step
Diameter 2.5 cm
Radius Diameter/2
Area ? x r2 8.04 cm2
Art of Chemical Measurement

• Recognize what can be measured directly

• Devise a way to obtain the desired information
  from
• measurement data

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Resting Potential (Squid Experiment)
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-65
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Resting Potential
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Experimentation
Measured Data
Basic
UNIT
Derived
Resting Potential -65 mV
Affected by Uncertainty

• Accuracy

• Precision

NUMERICAL VALUE

• Resolution

• Noise

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Significant Figures (Sig. Figs.)

• The mass of an object weighed on a triple beam
  balance (precision 0.1g) is found to be 23.6 g.
  
• This quantity contains 3 significant figures,
  i.e., three experimentally meaningful digits.
• If the same measurement is made with an
  analytical balance (precision 0.0001g) , the
  mass might be 23.5820 g (6 sig. fig.)

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Evaluating Zero
Zero is SIGNIFICANT when
Is between nonzero digits 61.09 has four sig
Figs.
Appears at the end of a number that includes a
decimal point 0.500 has three sig. Figs. 1000.
has four sig. Figs.
Zero is NON SIGNIFICANT when
Appears before the first nonzero digit. 0.0025
has two sig. Figs. Leading Zeros are non
significant
Appears at the end of a number without a decimal
point. 1,000 has one sig. Fig. 590 has two sig.
Figs.
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Exact Numbers
Defined numbers, like 12 inches in a foot, 60
minutes in an hour, 1,000mL in one liter.
Numbers that occur in counting operations.
Exact numbers have an infinite number of sig.
figs.
Exact numbers do not limit the number of sig.
figs. in a calculation.
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Scientific Notation
Number written as a factor between 1 and 10
multiplied by 10 raised to a power.
Useful to unequivocally designate the significant
figures.
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Multiplication or Division
The answer must contain as many significant
figures as in the least precise quantity
(measurement with least precision).
What is the density of a piece of metal weighing
36.123 g with a volume of 13.4 mL?
Drop these three digits
Round off to 7
ANSWER
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Addition or Subtraction
Keep only as many digits after the decimal point
as there are in the least precise quantity
Ex. Add 1.223 g of sugar to 154.5 g of coffee
Total mass 1.2 g 154.5 g 155.7 g
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Addition or Subtraction
Note that the rule for addition and subtraction
does not relate to significant figures.
The number of significant figures often decreases
upon subtraction.
Mass beaker sample 52.169 g (5 sig. figs.)
- Mass empty beaker 52.120 g (5 sig. figs.)
Mass sample 0.049 g (2 sig figs)
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SI Units Prefixes (Multiples)
Prefix Symbol Value Power
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000, 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
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SI Units Prefixes (Submultiples)
Prefix Symbol Value Power
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10-18
femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
micro µ 0.000001 10-6
milli m 0.001 10-3
centi c 0.01 10-2
deci d 0.1 10-1
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Système International (SI) The Metric System
Based on seven DIMENSIONALLY INDEPENDENT
quantities
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Length
Base unit is the meter (m)
1790s 10-millionth of the distance from the
equator to the North Pole along a meridian.
1889 Distance between two engraved lines on a
Platinum-Iridium alloy bar maintained at 0C in
Sevres-France.
1960-1983 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the
orange-red emision of 18Kr at standard conditions
Since 1983 1/299,792,458 of the distance
traveled by light in 1 second through vacuum.
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Length
Engineering dimensions
1 km 103 m 1 in. 2.54cm 1 cm 10-2 m 1
mile 1.61km 1 mm 10-3 m 1 µm 10-6 m
Atomic dimensions
1 nm 10-9 m
1 Å 10-10 m
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Mass Base unit is the kilogram (kg)
International prototype a platinum-Iridium
cylinder maintained in Sevres-France.

• 1 kg 103 g 1 mg 10-3 g
• A mass of 1 kg has a terrestrial weight of 9.8
  newtons (2.2 lbs)
• Depending on the precision required and the
  amount of material, different balances are used
  
• The Quadruple Beam Balance ( 10 mg)
• The Top Loading Balance ( 1 mg).
• The Analytical Balance ( 0.1 mg).

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Comparison of Temperature Scales
K C 273.15
C (F - 32) / 1.8
F (1.8 x C ) 32
Boiling point of water
Freezing point of water
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Temperature Conversion

• K C 273.15
• F (1.8 x C ) 32
• C (F - 32) / 1.8
• Ex. 2.20 Convert 110F to C and K
• C (68 32) / 1.8 20C
• K 20 273 293 K

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Derived Units
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Measurement of Volume
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Conversion Factors
Two conversion factors
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Dimensional Analysis (pp. 23 - 24)

• Read Problem. What needs to be solved for?
  Write it down

• Tabulate data given. Label all factors with
  proper units

• Determine principles involved and unit
  relationships

• Set up the problem deciding for the proper
  conversion factor

• Perform mathematical operations

• Check if the answer is reasonable

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Simple, One Step Conversions

• CBS News reported the barometric pressure to be
  99.6 kPa. Express this in mm Hg.

Conversion factor 101.3 kPa 760 mm Hg
Unit needed
pressure (mmHg) 99.6kPa
x
747mmHg
Unit given
Unit given
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Simple, One Step Conversions
A rainbow trout is measured to be 16.2 in. long.
What is the length in cm?
x
41.1 cm
length in cm 16.2 in
Note the cancellation of units. To convert from
centimeters to inches, the conversion factor
would be 1 in / 2.54 cm.
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Multiple Conversion Factors
A baseball is thrown at 89.6 miles per hour.
What is the speed in meters per second?
m/s
Mile/hour
m/hour
1 mile 1.609 km 1.609 x 10-3 m 1 h 3600 s
x
speed 89.6
40.0 m / s
x
Three sig. figs.
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Properties of Substances
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Extensive Properties
Vary with the amount of material

• Mass

• Volume

• Internal Energy

• Enthalpy

• Entropy

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Intensive Properties
Independent of the amount of material
Density (mass per unit volume)
Temperature (average energy per particle)
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Chemical vs. Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Molecules or ions undergo a change in structure
or composition
Physical Properties
Can be studied without a change in structure or
composition
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Density Conversion factor mass volume
An empty flask weighs 22.138 g. You pipet 5.00
mL of octane into the flask. The total mass is
25.598 g. What is the density?
Octane amount in g
What is the volume occupied by ten grams of
octane?
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Solubility
Expressed as grams of solute per 100 g of solvent
in the CRC (Chemical Rubber Company) Chemistry
and Physics Handbook.
For lead nitrate in aqueous solution
Solubility (g/100g water) T (C)
50 10
140 100
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Solubility
How much water is required to dissolve 80 g of
lead nitrate at 100C?
Mass water 80g lead nitrate
x
57g water
Conversion factor (from table)
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Cool the solution to 10C. How much lead nitrate
remains in solution?
x
28g lead nitrate
Mass of lead nitrate 57g water
28g lead nitrate remain in solution
80g lead nitrate were initially in solution
80g 28g 52g lead nitrate crystallizes out of
solution
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Classification of Matter
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States of Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Plasma
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Matter Classification
Matter
Mixtures
Pure Substances
Compounds
Homogeneous One Phase (Solutions)
Elements
Heterogeneous More than one phase
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Elements Distribution (earth, sea, atmosphere)
Element Mass Element Mass
Oxygen 49.20 Chlorine 0.19
Silicon 25.67 Phosphorus 0.11
Aluminum 7.50 Manganese 0.09
Iron 4.71 Carbon 0.08
Calcium 3.39 Sulfur 0.06
Sodium 2.63 Barium 0.04
Potassium 2.40 Nitrogen 0.03
Magnesium 1.93 Fluorine 0.03
Hydrogen 0.87
Titanium 0.58 All others 0.47
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Average Elemental Composition of Human Body
Element Mass
Oxygen 65.0
Carbon 18.0
Hydrogen 10.0
Nitrogen 3.0
Calcium 2.0
Phosphorus 1.0
Traces of other elements 1.0
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, Nonmetals,
Metals
Metalloids
Main-Group Elements
Main-Group Elements
Transition Metals
Inner-Transition Metals
Lantanides
Actinides
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Elements that Exist as Diatomic Molecules
Element Symbol Molecular Formula Normal State
Hydrogen H H2 Colorless gas
Nitrogen N N2 Colorless gas
Oxygen O O2 Colorless gas
Fluorine F F2 Pale yellow gas
Chlorine Cl Cl2 Yellow-green gas
Bromine Br Br2 Reddish-brown liquid
Iodine I I2 Bluish-black solid
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Depending upon Bonding type
Compounds
Ionic (Coulombic forces)
Molecular (Covalent bonds)
Molecules
Cations
Anions
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Compounds
Contain two or more elements with fixed mass
percents
Covalent
Glucose 40.00 C 6.71 H 53.29 O
Ionic
Sodium chloride 39.34 Na 60.66 Cl
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Information in a Chemical Formula
Ca(NO3) 2
Nitrate group two nitrate groups Per each
calcium atom
Calcium atom
Total elements 1 Ca 2 N 6 O
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Allotropic Forms (Allotropes)
Graphite
Carbon
Diamond
Buckyballs (C60 )
Nanotubes
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Energy
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Is the energy available but not being used or is
it in use?
Forms of Energy
Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy (Motion Energy)
Radiant (light)
Thermal (heat)
Energy
Chemical
(Capacity to do work)
Potential Energy (Stored Energy)
Electrical

• Position,
• Composition
• Condition

Mechanical
Law of Conservation of Energy
In any chemical or physical change, energy can be
converted from one form to another, but it is
neither created nor destroyed
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Heat Energy and Specific Heat
Units of Energy
Joule
Amount of kinetic energy possessed by a 2kg
object moving at a speed of 1m/s. Substituting
these values in the equation that defines kinetic
energy
Equivalent to the amount of energy you will feel
if you drop 4.4 lb from about 4 in. onto your
foot.
calorie (cal) Amount of heat energy needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of water by one
degree Celsius measured between 14.5 and 15.5C.
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Units of Energy
1 cal 4.3184 J
The joule and calorie are rather small units.
The large calorie (Cal, C) is used to express the
energy content of foods.
1kcal 4.3184kJ
1C 1kcal 103 cal
140,000 cal of energy is released when the soft
drink is metabolized within the body.
Sprite contains 140 C
1 BTU (British Thermal Unit)
Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
a lb of water one F
1BTU .818 kcal
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Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Joseph Black (1750)
Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of a substance by the same amount depends on the
substance
Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
a given quantity of substance in a specific
physical state.
Heat Capacity
Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 g of a substance in a specific physical state
by 1C
Specific Heat

• Units cal /g C or J/g C

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The specific heat of a substance changes when the
physical state of the substance changes
Ex.
Water (ice)
Water (liquid)
Water (steam)
2 .1 J / g C
4 . 18 J / g C
2 . 0 J / g C
The higher the specific heat of a substance, the
less its temperature will change when it absorbs
a given amount of heat.

• metals heat up quickly, but cool quickly

At the beach, sand has a lower specific heat than
water, so it heats up while water stays cool.
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Solving problems
Heat transferred mass x Specific heat x ?T
q m x Cs x ?T

1. Amount of heat energy needed to cause a fixed
   amount of a substance to undergo a specific
   temperature change without causing a change of
   state.
2. Transfer of heat from one body to another.

1. Heat always flows from the warmer body to the
   colder body.
2. The heat loss by the warmer body is equal to the
   heat gained by the colder body.

Generalizations
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Heat in Chemical Change
Electrolysis
Direct synthesis
H2O
H2O
Potential Energy Diagrams