Psychology and Criminal Behaviour

1
Psychology and Criminal Behaviour

• Dr. M. Clark

2
MENTAL DISTURBANCE AND CRIME

• Mental disturbance mental illness, mental
  impairment, severe mental impairment,
  psychopathic disorder and any other disorder of
  mind.
• Mental disorder Vs abnormality
• Both crime and mental disturbance are not clear
  cut phenomena
• Issue of cause and effect

3
Legal aspects

• Insanity defense (NGRI)
• Incompetence to stand trial
• diminished responsibility

4
Semantic issues

• Responsible
• Concise oxford dictionary
• Lable to be called to account (to person or for
  a thing)
• Being morally accountable for ones ations
  capable of rationl conduct
• Law not necessarily concerne with morality
  public and private morality

5
Components of legal blameworthiness

• An act does not make a person legaly guit unless
  his or her mind is also legally blameworthy
  mens rea criminal intent
• Actus reus

6
Erosions of liability

• Children
• Intoxication - in general the law holds that
  being in state of intoxication is no defense
  lesser charge
• Provocation
• Unfitness to plead
• Diminished responsibility

7
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

• Core concepts
• The importance of context in defining and
  understanding abnormality
• The continuum between normal and abnormal
  behaviour
• Cultural and historical relativism in defining
  and classifying abnormal behaviour no universal
  definition of abnormality
• the advantages and limitations of diagnosis
• labelling theory
• Thamas Szaz the myth of mental illness, one
  flew over the Cuckoos nest
• The principle of multiple causality
• Predisposing causes nature and nurture
• Precipitating causes situational triggers

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CRITERA

• COMMONLY USED CRITERA FOR DEFINING ABNORMLITY
  (HIDES)
• Help seeking
• Irrationality/dangerousness
• Deviance
• Emotional distress
• Significant impairment

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(Prins, 1999)

• OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF MENTAL DISORDERS
• The Functional Psychosis the affective disorders
• 
  Schizophrenic illness
• The Neurosis mild depression, anxiety states,
  hysteria, obsessional states
• Mental disorder as a result of infection,
  disease, metabolic and similar disturbances,
  trauma
• Mental disorder due to the ageing process
• Personality disorders
• Sexual disorders
• Substance abuse
• Mental Impairment (learning disabilities)
• DSM IV
• ICD-10

10
THE FUNCTIONAL PSYCHOSIS

• Affective disorders major depression, mania and
  hypomania, Manic depressive psychosis,

11
Major depression

• Definition a depressive illness is one in which
  the primary and dominant characteristic is a
  change in mood consisting of a feeling tone of
  sadness which may vary from mild despondency to
  the most abject despair.
• Change in mood is fixed
• Appearance and general behaviour depression
  with retardation /depression with anxiety
• Thinking inability to concentrate, formulate
  ideas, collect thoughts and make decisions
  difficulty in carrying out intellectual tasks or
  dealing with a problem
• Painful thoughts self concerned preoccupied
  with himself and his difficulties self blame
• hypochondriasis
• Loss of interest work, home and family,
  recreation, personal hygiene and appearance
• Derealisation and depersonalisation
• Disorders of perception - illusions
• Sleep disturbance
• Loss of appetite

12
Grief reactions

• Normal grief reactions
• Atypical and morbid grief reactions

13
Mania and Hypomania

• The antithesis of those seen in the depressive
  state
• Fixed change in mood which is one of excitement
  and elation
• Patient is optimistic, excited , marked general
  feeling of well being
• Marked pressure of activity effects thinking,
  speech and general activity
• Excessive talk
• Patient distractible
• Flight of ideas
• Puns
• Ceaseless activity
• Enthusiasm and good humour have infectious
  quality
• Overconfident, lack reserve , obstacles ignored
• Expansive friendly and interfering
• No insight
• Nuisance to others interfering
• Difficulties they get into
• Spend great deal of money, buy unnecessary
  things, and enter unwise legal agreements in
  business. Issue cheques they cannot meet
• drink excessively, engage in unwise sexual
  activity
• when thwarted they may become violent and angry
• treatment may have to be arranged compulsory

14
Manic depressive psychosis

• Bipolar disorder differs significantly from
  clinical depression, although the symptoms for
  the depressive phase of the illness are similar.
• Most people who have bipolar disorder talk about
  experiencing "highs" and "lows" the highs are
  periods of mania, the lows periods of depression.
  
• These swings can be severe, ranging from extreme
  energy to deep despair. The severity of the mood
  swings and the way they disrupt normal life
  activities distinguish bipolar mood episodes from
  ordinary mood changes.

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Symptoms of mania

• - the "highs" of bipolar disorder
• Increased physical and mental activity and energy
  
• Heightened mood, exaggerated optimism and
  self-confidence
• Excessive irritability, aggressive behavior
• Decreased need for sleep without experiencing
  fatigue
• Grandiose delusions, inflated sense of
  self-importance
• Racing speech, racing thoughts, flight of ideas
• Impulsiveness, poor judgment, distractibility
• Reckless behavior 
• In the most severe cases, delusions and
  hallucinations

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Symptoms of depression

• - the "lows" of bipolar disorder
• Prolonged sadness or unexplained crying spells
• Significant changes in appetite and sleep
  patterns
• Irritability, anger, worry, agitation, anxiety
• Pessimism, indifference
• Loss of energy, persistent lethargy
• Feelings of guilt, worthlessness
• Inability to concentrate, indecisiveness
• Inability to take pleasure in former interests,
  social withdrawal
• Unexplained aches and pains
• Recurring thoughts of death or suicide

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Schizophrenia

• Overview
• Fundamental disturbances in personality,
  thinking, emotional life, behaviour, interests,
  and relationships with other people
• Withdraw from environment
• Internal disintegration of thinking, feeling and
  behaviour
• Incongruity between emotional states and thoughts
  and actions
• A tendency to morbid projection

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OVERVIEW

• Withdrawal
• Generalised loss of interest in the environment
• Diminutition in response to external influences
• Loss of natural affection for relatives and
  friends
• Thought Disorder
• Early stages general vagueness and wooliness of
  speech lack coherence
• Glass wall
• Thoughts and ideas disconnected
• Unable to continue normal sequence of thought and
  speech
• Thought blockage thought deprivation
• Paucity of ideas repetitive and stereotypes
  themes
• Thought crowding
• Associations
• Loss of conceptual thinking in concrete terms
• Cause and effect may be interchanged
• Talk in riddles
• Invent new words

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Change in affect

• Emotionally flattened loss of natural
  affection, inappropriate emotional reactions
• Insensitive and inconsiderate to other peoples
  experiences and feelings
• Takes offence readily and tends to isolate
  himself in his environment
• Increasingly develops a state of apathy
• Emotional incongruity
• Experience extremely rapid change of emotion
• Inappropriate emotional responses
• Emotional responses may be disproportionate and
  inappropriate to the stimulus severe emotional
  outbursts without provocation anger, violence
  or marked terror
• Ambivalence

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Disturbances in behaviour and motor functions

• General demeanour is awkward
• Grimacing, twitching and stereotyped movement of
  parts of the body
• Conduct disconnected from other aspects of the
  patients life waxy flexibility echopraxia
  echolalia
• Negativism

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Delusion formation and the paranoid disposition

• Delusion false belief which is not amenable to
  persuasion or argument
• Characteristic of schizophrenia
• Primary or secondary delusions
• Paranoid disturbance of the individuals
  relationship to the world
• Delusions of persecution and delusions of
  grandeur
• The paranoid disposition is the tendency to
  attribute to the world things which really arise
  from within the person morbid projection may
  vary in form and degree
• Delusions of reference delusions of persecution
  hypochondriacal delusions
• Useless to argue

22
Disorders of perception

• Hallucinations
• Auditory most common may be perceived as coming
  from inside oneself or from
• outside
• Especially common hallucinations talking abut
  patient in the third person running commentary
  thought echo
• Patients vary with regard to their tendency to
  feel compelled to carry out whatever
• Voices are frequently abusive
• Feel compelled to listen and often become angry
• Visual
• Tactile
• Olfactory

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Varieties of schizophrenia

• simple
• hebephrenic
• catatonic
• paranoid
• may change from one type to another during course
  of the illness

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Simple schizophrenia

• insidious onset
• gradual deterioration socially
• difficulty in establishing time of onset
• withdrawal of interest in the environment,
  apathy, difficulty in making social contacts,
  poverty of ideation, decline in total performance
• marked sensitivity and ideas of reference
• many become socially deviant
• different from schizoid psychopathy

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• Hebephrenic
• also insidious
• characterised by thought disorder and emotional
  abnormalities
• affect inappropriate
• thought disorder and delusions
• hallucinations
• Catatonic
• acute onset
• disturbance of behaviour and motor phenomena
• Paranoid
• development of delusions, especially delusions of
  persecution
• late onset
• delusions may be variable, transient and poorly
  held or systemised highly complex and relatively
  fixed
• paranoia term given to patients showing a fixed
  delusional system without thought disorder and
  hallucinations

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THE NEUROSIS

• Mild depression
• Anxiety states
• a disorder in which anxiety is the primary and
  dominant part of the clinical picture
• morbid pervasive fear or dread
• affects well being, efficiency and normal
  adjustment
• prominent feature of many psychiatric illnesses
• may result in impulsive behaviour

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Hysterical States

• patient develops symptoms and signs of illness
  for some real or imagined gain without being
  fully aware of the underlying motive
• psychogenic illness having a motive of gain
• may simulate any disease
• process of dissociation whereby certain
  dynamically important experiences become
  separated from the mainstream of consciousness
  under conditions of stress
• on account of the gain resulting from the illness
  confused with malingering
• the hysteric has genuine symptoms
• Forms of hysterical reaction
• Dysmnesic
• Amnesia
• Fugues
• Somnambulism
• Twilight states
• Conversion symptoms
• Motor e.g. paralysis, abnormal gait
• Sensory
• Visceral e.g. retention of urine
• Quasi psychotic state Ganser syndrome
• Hysterical superadditions to normal illness

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Obsessional States

• Definition an obsession is a content of
  consciousness, that is, an idea, an impulse to
  action which, when it appears, is accompanied by
  a subjective feeling of compulsion which the
  patient tries to resist but cannot get rid of.
• Obsessional personality
• Varieties of obsessional symptoms
• Obsessional thoughts
• Obsessional ruminations
• Obsessional doubts
• Obsessional vacillations
• Obsessional phobias
• Compulsive actions

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Abnormalities of personality

• Antisocial Personality Disorder  Lack of regard
  for the moral or legal standards in the local
  culture, marked inability to get along with
  others or abide by societal rules.  Sometimes
  called psychopaths or sociopaths.
• Avoidant Personality Disorder  Marked social
  inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and extremely
  sensitive to criticism.
• Borderline Personality Disorder  Lack of one's
  own identity, with rapid changes in mood, intense
  unstable interpersonal relationships, marked
  impulsively, instability in affect and in self
  image.

30
CONT

• Dependent Personality Disorder  Extreme need of
  other people, to a point where the person is
  unable to make any decisions or take an
  independent stand on his or her own. Fear of
  separation and submissive behavior. Marked lack
  of decisiveness and self-confidence.
• Histrionic Personality Disorder  Exaggerated and
  often inappropriate displays of emotional
  reactions, approaching theatricality, in everyday
  behavior. Sudden and rapidly shifting emotion
  expressions.
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder  Behavior or a
  fantasy of grandiosity, a lack of empathy, a need
  to be admired by others, an inability to see the
  viewpoints of others, and hypersensitive to the
  opinions of others.

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CONT

• Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder 
  Characterized by perfectionism and inflexibility
  preoccupation with uncontrollable patterns of
  thought and action.
• Paranoid Personality Disorder  Marked distrust
  of others, including the belief, without reason,
  that others are exploiting, harming, or trying to
  deceive him or her lack of trust belief of
  others' betrayal belief in hidden meanings
  unforgiving and grudge holding.
• Schizoid Personality Disorder  Primarily
  characterized by a very limited range of emotion,
  both in expression of and experiencing
  indifferent to social relationships.
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder   Peculiarities
  of thinking, odd beliefs, and eccentricities of
  appearance,  behavior, interpersonal style, and
  thought (e.g., belief in psychic phenomena and
  having magical powers).

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cont

• SEXUAL DISORDERS
• The paraphilias
• SUBSTANCE ABUSE
• MENTAL IMPAIRMENT

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Mentally Disordered Offenders

• Insanity is a legal concept which has no formal
  psychiatric meaning
• From the standpoint of the CJS there are 5
  critical points at which evidence of mental
  disorder affects legal action (Halleck, 1987)
• police exercise discretion in charging someone
  causing a public nuisance or suspected of a crime
  who may be mentally disordered
• at the time of trial a defendant may be found
  incompetent or unfit
• insanity may be pleaded as a defense
• defendant maybe found guilty but evidence of
  mental disorder might mitigate the severity of
  the sentence
• convicted prisoners who become mentally
  disordered while in prison may be transferred to
  the mental health system.

34
cont

• Mentally disordered offenders comprise a diverse
  group whose disorder is sufficiently disabling to
  justify substantially different treatment from
  that of other offenders.

35
Representations of the mentally ill

• Popular view that mental disorder predisposes
  people to crime
• Mass media a primary source of public information
  about mental illness
• Media portrayals of mental illness are false and
  negative (Berlin and Malin, 1991)
• Link between media portrayals and negative
  attitudes towards mentally ill people
  experiments
• Diefenback (1997) - television portrays the
  mentally ill as significantly more violent than
  other TV characters and significantly more
  violent than the mentally ill in the real world
  prime time TV portrays the mentally ill as
  having a negative quality of life and a negative
  impact on society
• Major mental disorder may render people more
  vulnerable to arrest, victim of stigma of media
  gossip about homicidal maniacs

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epidemiology

• Hodgins, Mednick, Brennanm Shulsinger and
  Egngberg (1998) Danish birth cohort
• women and men who had been hospitalised in
  psychiatric wards were more likely to have been
  convicted of a criminal offence than persons with
  no history of psychiatric hospitalisation
• patients discharged from psychiatric wards are
  more likely than other persons living in the same
  community to commit crimes

37

• Hodgins (1992) Swedish birth cohort
• men with major mental disorders were 2.5 times
  more likely than men with no disorder or handicap
  t be registered for a criminal offence
• 4 times more likely to be registered for a
  violent offence
• Intellectually handicapped men were three times
  more likely to offend than men with no handicap
• Five times more likely to commit violent offence
• Intellectually handicapped women were 4 times
  more likely to offend than women with no disorder
  of handicap
• 25 times more likely to commit a violent offence
• Women with major disorders were 5 times more
  likely than women with n disorder to be
  registered for an offence
• 27 times more likely to be registered for a
  violent offence
• Taylor (2004) major mental disorder violence
• not violent prior to psychotic illness
• delusions responsible for serious violence
• people who are frightened or depressed by their
  beliefs are more likely to act on them
• also those trying to get evidence for them
• when a challenge was posed to the belief, those
  people who took the challenge rather than
  ignoring it and embellished their belief were
  more likely to act violently than the others
• friends and family most likely to challenge
  delusions
• most vulnerable to the most serious violence when
  it occurs (Johnston and Taylor, 2003)
• mothers represent largest single group to be
  targets for violence (Estroff et al 1988)

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Offender Populations

• representativeness true and treated prevalence
• bias police more likely to arrest
• Gunn et al (1978) - 39 of 149 prisoners showed
  moderate, marked or severe levels of mental
  disturbance depression and anxiety states,
  addictive behaviour - psychotic disturbance was
  rare
• Conclusion 31 Vs 14
• Prins (1980) - psychiatric problems are common in
  offender populations - greater percentage of
  mental disorder
• Feldman (1977) - alternative explanations
• Main diagnosis substance abuse, personality
  disorder, neurosis, psychosis and organic
  disorders

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Offending In Psychiatric Patients

• Early Vs late studies
• What offences? - violent crime - robbery and rape
• Mixed results offending among psychiatric
  patients associated more with the same
  demographic factors of age, gender, social class
  and ethnicity than psychiatric status
• But recent Swedish study (Hodgins, 1992) those
  who develop serious mental disorder, or are
  intellectually handicapped are more likely to
  commit a crime than those not identified as
  disordered or handicapped.

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Types of Mental Disorder and Crime

• Affective disorders
• Severe affective disorder
• Disturbance of mood
• Mild or severe/endogenous or reactive
• Murder followed by suicide
• Difficult to establish cause and effect
• Violence as cathartic
• Manic and Hypomanic Disorder
• Outrageous, insightless and therefore potentially
  dangerous behaviour
• Feelings of omnipotence
• Wild ideas are considered practical
• Memory is unimpaired rational arguments
• Resist the idea that something wrong with them
• Hostile and aggressive to those they think are
  obstructing them

41
Schizophrenic illness

• Schizophrenia - disturbance of thought,
  perception, affect and motor behaviour
• selected samples of offenders referred for
  psychiatric treatment - higher
• Paranoid ideas and violence
• Sosowsky (1978) - schizophrenics are slightly
  more likely to commit violent offences then
  other disordered groups or general population
• Offending occurs during the prodromal phase and
  not in its florid form
• Paranoid schizophrenia mostly implicated
• Delusional jealousy Othello syndrome
• Although the incidence of schizophrenic illness
  in relation to crime is low in may be of
  importance in particular cases e.g. bizarre crime.

42
CONT

• The Neurosis
• mild depression
• anxiety states
• hysterical states
• obsessive/compulsive states
• Mild depression
• may be accompanied with confusion and
  absentmindedness
• lead to shoplifting
• Anxiety states
• do not often account for criminality but
  individuals may feel so driven by their anxieties
  that they commit impulsive offence.
• Hysterical states
• of forensic importance
• hysterical amnesia
• fugues
• Ganser syndrome
• multiple personality disorder
• Munchausen syndrome and Munchhuasen syndrome by
  Proxy

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Mental Impairment

• Severe impairment difficulty in understanding
  right from wrong
• More easily caught
• Used by others
• Impairment may be related to organic disorder
• Difficulty in making intentions known
• Easily provoked
• Sexuality lack of social skills
• Vulnerable to changes in social environment

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PSYCHOPATHY and ASPD

• Not the same
• Antisocial personality disorder is characterized
  by a lack of regard for the moral or legal
  standards in the local culture. There is a marked
  inability to get along with others or abide by
  societal rules. Individuals with this disorder
  are sometimes called psychopaths or sociopaths.
• Diagnostic criteria for 301.7 Antisocial
  Personality Disorder  (cautionary statement)  
• A. There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for
  and violation of the rights of others occurring
  since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or
  more) of the following 
• (1) failure to conform to social norms with
  respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by
  repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for
  arrest (2) deceitfulness, as indicated by
  repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others
  for personal profit or pleasure (3) impulsivity
  or failure to plan ahead (4) irritability and
  aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical
  fights or assaults (5) reckless disregard for
  safety of self or others (6) consistent
  irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated
  failure to sustain consistent work behavior or
  honor financial obligations (7) lack of remorse,
  as indicated by being indifferent to or
  rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen
  from another 
• B. The individual is at least age 18 years. 
• C. There is evidence of Conduct Disorder with
  onset before age 15 years. 
• D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not
  exclusively during the course of Schizophrenia or
  a Manic Episode.

45
distinction

• The distinction between psychopathy and ASPD is
  of considerable significance to the mental health
  and criminal justice systems. Unfortunately, it
  is a distinction that is often blurred, not only
  in the minds of many clinicians but in the latest
  edition of DSM-IV. (Hare, 1996)
• Traditionally, affective and interpersonal traits
  such as egocentricity, deceit, shallow affect,
  manipulativeness, selfishness, and lack of
  empathy, guilt or remorse, have played a central
  role in the conceptualization and diagnosis of
  psychopathy (Cleckley Hare 1993 in press)
  Widiger and Corbitt). In 1980 this tradition was
  broken with the publication of DSM-III.
  Psychopathy- renamed antisocial personality
  disorder- was now defined by persistent
  violations of social norms, including lying,
  stealing, truancy, inconsistent work behavior and
  traffic arrests.

46

• Among the reasons given for this dramatic shift
  away from the use of clinical inferences were
  that personality traits are difficult to measure
  reliably, and that it is easier to agree on the
  behaviors that typify a disorder than on the
  reasons why they occur. The result was a
  diagnostic category with good reliability but
  dubious validity, a category that lacked
  congruence with other, well-established
  conceptions of psychopathy. This "construct
  drift" was not intentional but rather the
  unforeseen result of reliance on a fixed set of
  behavioral indicators that simply did not provide
  adequate coverage of the construct they were
  designed to measure.
• The problems with DSM-III and its 1987 revision
  (DSM-III-R) were widely discussed in the clinical
  and research literature (Widiger and Corbitt).
  Much of the debate concerned the absence of
  personality traits in the diagnosis of ASPD, an
  omission that allowed antisocial individuals with
  completely different personalities, attitudes and
  motivations to share the same diagnosis. At the
  same time, there was mounting evidence that the
  criteria for ASPD defined a disorder that was
  more artifactual than "real" (Livesley and
  Schroeder).

47

• Psychopathy Checklist
• Coincident with the publication of DSM-III in
  1980, Hare presented some preliminary findings on
  efforts to provide researchers with an
  operational definition of psychopathy in offender
  populations (Hare 1980). During the next decade
  those early efforts evolved into the Hare
  Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) (Hare
  1991), a 20-item construct rating scale that uses
  a semi-structured interview, case-history
  information and specific diagnostic criteria for
  each item to provide a reliable and valid
  estimate of the degree to which an offender or
  forensic psychiatric patient matches the
  traditional (prototypical) conception of the
  psychopath (Fulero Stone). Each item is scored
  on a 3-point scale (0, 1, 2) according to the
  extent to which it applies to the individual. The
  total score can range from 0 to 40, with between
  15 percent and 20 percent of offenders receiving
  a score of at least 30, the cutoff for a research
  diagnosis of psychopathy. To put this into
  context, the mean scores for offenders in general
  and for noncriminals typically are around 22 and
  5, respectively.

48

• A 12-item version of the PCL-R was developed for
  use in the MacArthur Foundation study on the
  prediction of violence in the mentally disordered
  (Hart et al 1994). Published in 1995 as the Hare
  Psychopathy Checklist Screening Version (PCLSV)
  by Hart and colleagues, it is highly correlated
  with the PCL-R and is used both to screen for
  psychopathy in forensic populations and as a
  stand-alone instrument for the assessment of
  psychopathy in noncriminal populations. The
  PCLSV formed the basis for the psychopathic
  personality disorder items used in the DSM-IV
  field trial for ASPD.

49

• The items fall into two clusters One cluster,
  referred to as Factor 1, reflects core
  interpersonal and affective characteristics the
  other cluster, Factor 2, consists of items that
  reflect a socially deviant and nomadic lifestyle.

50

• Most psychopaths (with the exception of those who
  somehow manage to plow their way through life
  without coming into formal or prolonged contact
  with the criminal justice system) meet the
  criteria for ASPD, but most individuals with ASPD
  are not psychopaths. Further, ASPD is very common
  in criminal populations, and those with the
  disorder are heterogeneous with respect to
  personality, attitudes and motivations for
  engaging in criminal behavior.
• As a result, a diagnosis of ASPD has limited
  utility for making differential predictions of
  institutional adjustment, response to treatment,
  and behavior following release from prison. In
  contrast, a high PCL-R score depends as much on
  inferred personality traits as on antisocial
  behaviors, and when used alone or in conjunction
  with other variables has considerable predictive
  validity with respect to treatment outcome,
  institutional adjustment, recidivism and violence
  (Hare 1991 Harris and others Hart and Hare, in
  press).

51

• For example, several studies have found that
  psychopathic offenders or forensic psychiatric
  patients (as defined by the PCL-R) are as much as
  three or four times more likely to violently
  reoffend following release from custody than are
  nonpsychopathic offenders or patients. ASPD, on
  the other hand, has relatively little predictive
  power, at least with forensic populations (Hart
  and Hare, in press).

52

• The differences between psychopathy and ASPD are
  further highlighted by recent laboratory research
  involving the processing and use of linguistic
  and emotional information. Psychopaths differ
  dramatically from nonpsychopaths in their
  performance of a variety of cognitive and
  affective tasks. Compared with normal
  individuals, for example, psychopaths are less
  able to process or use the deep semantic meanings
  of language and to appreciate the emotional
  significance of events or experiences (Larbig and
  others Patrick Williamson and others).
• It is worth noting that it is the interpersonal
  and affective components of psychopathy (as
  measured by PCL-R, Factor 1) that are most
  discriminating in these experiments. In sharp
  contrast, those with a diagnosis of ASPD (in
  which interpersonal and affective traits play
  little role) differ little from those without
  ASPD in their processing of linguistic and
  emotional material.

53
Psychopathy ChecklistRevised

• -The Psychopathy ChecklistRevised (PCL-R Hare,
  1991, 2003), in particular, has high predictive
  validity with respect to both general and violent
  recidivism (see, e.g., Hemphill, Hare, Wong,
• -The Psychopathy Checklist Youth Version
  (PCLYV Forth, Kosson, Hare, 2003) was
  designed to assess psychopathic traits in youth
  that are considered to be
• Associated with adolescent risk and treatment
  amenability

54
cont

• -MOST PSYCHOPATHS ARE ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITIES
  BUT NOT ALL ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITIES ARE
  PSYCHOPATHS.
• - This is because APD is defined mainly by
  behaviors (Factor 2 antisocial behaviors) and
  doesn't tap the affective/interpersonal
  dimensions (Factor 1 core psychopathic features,
  narcissism) of psychopathy.
• - Further, criminals and APDs tend to "age out"
  of crime psychopaths do not, and are at high
  risk of recidivism.

55
PCL-R 20-item

•     Hare's checklist is based on Cleckley's
  16-item checklist, and the following is a
  discussion of the concepts in the PCL-R
• 1. GLIB and SUPERFICIAL CHARM
• 2. GRANDIOSE SELF-WORTH
• 3. NEED FOR STIMULATION or PRONENESS TO BOREDOM
• 4. PATHOLOGICAL LYING
• 5. CONNING AND MANIPULATIVENESS
• 6. LACK OF REMORSE OR GUILT
• 7. SHALLOW AFFECT
• 8. CALLOUSNESS and LACK OF EMPATHY
• 9. PARASITIC LIFESTYLE
• 10. POOR BEHAVIORAL CONTROLS
• 11. PROMISCUOUS SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
• 12. EARLY BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
• 13. LACK OF REALISTIC, LONG-TERM GOALS
• 14. IMPULSIVITY
• 15. IRRESPONSIBILITY
• 16. FAILURE TO ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY FOR OWN
  ACTIONS
• 17. MANY SHORT-TERM MARITAL RELATIONSHIPS
• 18. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

56
CRITIQUE

• Sociologists see psychiatry and law as
  alternative systems for controlling the socially
  deviant (Foucault, 1978)
• Concerns about the psychiatrisation of crime
  and the crminalisation of mental disorder
• Medical model remains the dominant paradigm
• Critique
• Fails to meet some ideal of health
• No sharp boundaries between normality or
  abnormality
• Szasz (1960) objects to the determinism of the
  disease concept
• Sufferer as a passive object
• Issues of professional power and the control of
  care delivery services
• Popular notion that criminals are sick
• Psychological interventions in antisocial
  behaviour implicitly follow a medical analogy in
  so far as the temporary application of treatment
  is expected to lead to cure
• Sociological criticism of individualism
• Attack on rehabilitation

57
CRIMINAL NON RESPONSIBILITY

• Mental illness is a global qualitative alteration
  of psychic functions and of a persons entire
  ability to relate to his environment
• A mentally ill person lives is a system of
  interactions with other persons and the world
  whose meanings have been totally altered as a
  result of the illness
• This alteration is not within the control of
  mentally ill patient
• Eg the psychosocially disturbed schizophrenic is
  without responsibility and without criminal guilt
  for his social conduct
• This is the logical deduction of criminal non
  responsibility
• Adapted from Krober and Lau (2000)

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59
SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AND MISBEHAVIOUR

• Relative normality vs. deviance
• Morality
• Religion proscription
• Emotive
• stereotyping
• 4 points (Prins, 1980) Sexual standards
• statistical
• cultural
• religious
• subjective
• Not all sexual deviations constitute criminal
  behaviour and not all sexual offences are sexual
  deviations
• Emotive topic
• Changes in attitudes towards women
• Changes in reference to sexual behaviour and
  misbehaviour

60

• ELEMENTS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
• Sexual behaviour has four elements
• True for normal or deviant sexual behaviour
• fantasy
• Symbolism fethishes and partialisms
• ritualism
• compulsion
• Combining the elements indicative that the sex
  involved is not typical of normal sexual
  functioning
• An individual is sexual only when a certain
  fetish or partialism is sent
• Compulsivity is so overwhelming that emotions and
  caring for the partner are missing
• Certain scripts must be followed, and any
  deviation from them is fatal to sexual
  functioning
• Fantasies center on the dehumanization, torture,
  and/or murder of hapless and helpless victims

61
THEORIES OF SEXUAL DEVIANCE

• The subjects and offences covered under the
  rubric of sexual offences is wide and varied
• In order to begin to understand the basic reasons
  or theoretical underpinnings of why sex
  offenders, as an aggregate class, behave the way
  they do, we have to take a broad look at sexual
  offenders and their motivations
• Four prevailing approaches

62
Biological perspectives

• Popular belief sexually deviant behaviour
  reflects a high sex drive
• some components of arousal and orgasm are
  controlled by hormones
• but sexual arousal, sexual performance and gender
  identity are highly dependent on learning and
  situational factors
• Quinsey (1984) animal studies suggest a close
  link between neural centres for aggression and
  sexual activity
• Sexual violence may be the result of genetic
  advantage of forced mating in evolutionary
  history
• Marshall and Barbaree (1990) natural propensity
  for sexual aggression in males
• Constitutional theories of crime Lombroso,
  Sheldon, genetic theories etc

63
Psychodynamic concepts

• Freud
• Freud sexual deviations serve a defensive
  function of avoiding castration anxiety
• Unresolved oedipal conflicts and regression to
  earlier fixation points
• Failure to identify with father dominance of
  mother
• E.g. homosexual pedophilia inverted narcissism
• Rapists ambivalence towards mother
• Sexual sadism degradation of a woman implies a
  reaction formation against incestuous wishes
• Recent accounts ego functions and interpersonal
  goals
• Groth and Burgess (1977) emhasise non sexual
  motives e.g. rape function of anger and need for
  power and control
• Symbolic revenge

64
Learning Theories

• Most popular and researched
• Classical conditioning - The attachment of sexual
  arousal to inappropriate stimuli and failure to
  acquire heterosocial skills
• S-r mediation
• Initial arousing experience supplies fantasy for
  masturbation particular cues achieve a sexual
  valence trough being parried with sexual arousal
  and orgasm.
• Deficiencies in social skills negative
  reinforcement of deviant attractions less
  anxiety provoking reinforced if not punished
• Inds learn criminal acts and acquire motivation
  to commit crime from those around them
• Acquisition, instigation and maintenance

65
Sociocultural theories

• Wide cross cultural variability in the prevalence
  of forcible sex and sex between adults and
  children
• Focus on rape
• Expression of the power relationships between men
  and women (Brownmiller, 1975)

66
Sex crimes

• Sex crimes are forms of human sexual behavior
  that are crimes. Someone who commits one is said
  to be a sex offender. Some sex crimes are crimes
  of violence that involve sex. Others are
  violations of social taboos, such as incest,
  indecent exposure or exhibitionism. There is much
  variation among cultures as to what is considered
  a crime or not, and in what ways or to what
  extent crimes are punished.
• Western cultures are often far more tolerant of
  acts, such as oral sex or cross-dressing, that
  have traditionally been held to be crimes in some
  other cultures, but combine this with lesser
  tolerance for the remaining crimes. By contrast,
  many cultures with a strong religious tradition
  consider a far broader range of activities to be
  serious crimes.
• As a general rule, the law in many countries
  often intervenes in sexual activity involving
  young or adolescent children below the legal age
  of consent, nonconsensual deliberate displays or
  illicit watching of sexual activity, sex with
  close relatives ("incest"), harm to animals, acts
  involving the deceased, and also when there is
  harassment, nuisance, fear, injury, or assault of
  a sexual nature, or serious risk of abuse of
  certain professional relationships.
• Separately, it also usually regulates or controls
  the censorship of pornographic or obscene
  material.

67
Common sex crimes

• The activities listed below often carry a
  condition of illegality if acted upon, though
  they may usually be legally role played between
  consenting partners
• Rape, lust murder and other forms of sexual
  assault and sexual abuse
• Child sexual abuse
• Statutory rape
• Frotteurism sexual arousal through rubbing one's
  self against a non-consenting stranger in public
• Exhibitionism and voyeurism, if deliberate and
  non-consensual, called "indecent exposure" and
  "peeping tom" respectively in this context.
• Incest between close relatives - laws on what is
  permitted and not permitted vary widely.
• Telephone scatologia being sexually aroused by
  making obscene telephone calls
• Sex with animals
• Sexual harassment
• Sexual acts by people in a position of trust
  (such as teachers, doctors and police officers),
  towards any person they are involved with
  professionally.
• Extra-maritial relations are illegal in many
  places. In Islamic law, it is illegal under the
  term Zina.
• A variety of laws protect children by making
  various acts with children a sex crime. These can
  include Age of Consent laws, laws preventing the
  exposure of children to pornography, laws making
  it a crime for a child to be involved in (or
  exposed to) certain sexual behaviors, and laws
  against child grooming and the production and
  ownership of child pornography (including
  simulated images).
• Non-consensual sadomasochistic acts may legally
  constitute assault, and therefore belong in this
  list. In addition, some jurisdictions criminalize
  some or all sadomasochistic acts, regardless of
  legal consent and impose liability for any
  injuries caused.

68
CONT

• Acts which may be regarded as crimes in some
  areas
• Many consensual sexual actions or activities
  which are widely permitted (or not criminalized)
  in one place, may none the less be viewed as
  crimes (often of a serious nature) in other
  places.
• The clearest example of this is homosexuality
  which varies from being legally protected and
  capable of marriage in some countries, through
  to obtaining the death penalty in others. Other
  examples include
• Adultery
• Anal sex
• Masturbation
• Nudity/Streaking
• Oral sex
• Various Paraphilias/Fetishes (Sexual) such as
  transvestitism
• Pornography
• Prostitution and/or pimping
• Ownership of sex toys
• Public urination
• Stealing underwear - Although stealing is always
  a crime, men's stealing of women's underwear or
  vice-versa is sometimes regarded as more serious
  than stealing same-sex underwear.

69
(Perkins, 1991) CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION

• compensatory
• displaced aggression
• sadistic
• impulsive/opportunistic

70
PSYCHIATRIC CLASSIFICATION

• the paraphilias (handout)
• an erotosexual condition in which a person is
  recurrently responsive to , and obsessively
  dependent on an unusual or unacceptable stimulus,
  perception or fantasy
• stimulus s necessary to initiate or maintain
  erotic arousal and t achieve orgasm
• involve a segment of the preparatory stage
  (Money and Werlas 1982)
• a time frame of at least 6 months (DSM IIIR)

71

• These mental disorders are characterized by
  sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving
  non-human objects (coprophilia, Fetishism,
  Transvestic Fetishism), suffering or humiliation
  (Sexual Sadism, Masochism), children (Pedophilia)
  or other non-consenting person (Voyeurism,
  Frotteurism, Exhibitionism).

72
coprophilia

• Love of feces in psychoanalytic theory is
  associated with anal eroticism and symbolized by
  love of valuables. 

73
Fetishism

• This paraphilia is characterized by sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving use of
  non-human objects to produce or enhance sexual
  arousal with or in the absence of a partner.
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving the use of
  nonliving objects (e.g., female
  undergarments). B. The fantasies, sexual urges,
  or behaviors cause clinically significant
  distress or impairment in social, occupational,
  or other important areas of functioning. C. The
  fetish objects are not limited to articles of
  female clothing used in cross-dressing (as in
  Transvestic Fetishism) or devices designed for
  the purpose of tactile genital stimulation (e.g.,
  a vibrator).

74
Transvestic Fetishism

• Heterosexual males with this paraphilia dress in
  female clothes (cross-dress) to produce or
  enhance sexual arousal, usually without a real
  partner, but with the fantasy that they are the
  female partner as well.
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, in a
  heterosexual male, recurrent, intense sexually
  arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors
  involving cross-dressing. B. The fantasies,
  sexual urges, or behaviors cause clinically
  significant distress or impairment in social,
  occupational, or other important areas of
  functioning. Specify if With Gender Dysphoria
  if the person has persistent discomfort with
  gender role or identity

75
Sexual Sadism

• Individuals with this Paraphilia use sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving
  infliction of pain, suffering or humiliation to
  enhance or achieve sexual excitement.
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving acts (real, not
  simulated) in which the psychological or physical
  suffering (including humiliation) of the victim
  is sexually exciting to the person. B. The person
  has acted on these urges with a nonconsenting
  person, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause
  marked distress or interpersonal difficulty.

76
Sexual Masochism

• Individuals with this paraphilia use sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving being
  beaten, humiliated, bound or tortured to enhance
  or achieve sexual excitement.
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving the act (real, not
  simulated) of being humiliated, beaten, bound, or
  otherwise made to suffer. B. The fantasies,
  sexual urges, or behaviors cause clinically
  significant distress or impairment in social,
  occupational, or other important areas of
  functioning.

77
Pedophilia

• This Paraphilia is characterized by sexual
  activity with a child, usually age 13 or younger,
  or in the case of an adolescent,  a child 5 years
  younger than the pedophile.
•  
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving sexual activity
  with a prepubescent child or children (generally
  age 13 years or younger). B. The person has acted
  on these urges, or the sexual urges or fantasies
  cause marked distress or interpersonal
  difficulty.C. The person is at least age 16 years
  and at least 5 years older than the child or
  children in Criterion A. Note Do not include an
  individual in late adolescence involved in an
  ongoing sexual relationship with a 12- or
  13-year-old. Specify if Sexually Attracted to
  Males Sexually Attracted to Females Sexually
  Attracted to Both Specify ifLimited to
  Incest Specify type Exclusive Type (attracted
  only to children) Nonexclusive Type

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Voyeurism

• This Paraphilia is characterized by sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving
  observing an unknowing and non-consenting person,
  usually unclothed and/or engaged in sexual
  activity, to produce sexual excitement.
•  
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving the act of
  observing an unsuspecting person who is naked, in
  the process of disrobing, or engaging in sexual
  activity. B. The person has acted on these urges,
  or the sexual urges or fantasies cause marked
  distress or interpersonal difficulty.

79
Frotteurism

• This Paraphilia is characterized by sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving touching
  or rubbing one's genitals against the body of a
  non-consenting person.
• Also frottage
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving touching and
  rubbing against a non-consenting person. B. The
  person has acted on these urges, or the sexual
  urges or fantasies cause marked distress or
  interpersonal difficulty.

80
Exhibitionism

• This Paraphilia is characterized by sexual
  fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving surprise
  exposure of the individual's genitals to a
  stranger.
• A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent,
  intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual
  urges, or behaviors involving the exposure of
  one's genitals to an unsuspecting stranger. B.
  The person has acted on these urges, or the
  sexual urges or fantasies cause marked distress
  or interpersonal difficulty.

81
PREVALANCE?

• Constitute a small proportion of all crimes
• Discrepancy between actual offences committed,
  numbers known to the police and numbers
  prosecuted
• Most sexual offences are committed by males
• Prevalence of women on the increase

82
SEXUAL OFFENCES Indecent exposure

• Commonest
• Exclusively male offence
• Victims adult females or children of either sex
• Behaviour and personality types (Prins,1980)
• Inhibited struggles against impulses to expose
  himself. Placid penis and anxiety guilt. Form
  of love making at a distance. Sex education and
  counseling
• Situational exposure. Marital or other stress.
  Counseling.
• Less inhibited type erect penis and
  masturbation. Intervention may prevent
  progression
• exposure occurring with mental illness medical
  intervention
• Mentally impaired. Lack of social skills and need
  for sexual expression. Counseling and social
  skills training.
• exposure facilitated by substance abuse
• true exhibitionists sole means of obtaining
  release
• Neurotic exhibitionist compulsion medication.

83
Additional explanations

• need to assert a wavering or undeveloped
  masculinity
• need to assert power over women
• suppressed desire to commit rape

84
Scoptophlia (voyeurism)

• sexual arousal by looking at private or intimate
  scenes
• learns from experience and looks for scenes that
  he can easily invade
• Dangers are that scoptophiliac will attempt to
  meet the victim of communicate with her
• courtship disordered interferes with normal
  courtship functions (Seto and Kuban, 1996)
• after the act will move to a place where he can
  masturbate
• dynamics involved do not seem to be severe enough
  to result in a violent sex offender
• Traits of scoptophiliacs
• sexually immature
• sexually frustrated
• poor relationship with father
• overprotective mother
• childhood sexual trauma
• poor social /sexual skills
• low self esteem and high self criticism
• young and chronic masturbator

85
Sexual Assaults on Children

• physical and emotional trauma considerable
• distinguish between homosexual/heterosexual,
  young/adult offenders
• classification (Knight et al, 1989)
• type1. interpersonal
• type 2. narcissistic
• type 3. exploitative, non sadistic
• type 4. muted sadistic behaviour
• type 5. non sadistic aggressive
• type 6. sadistic

86
Extent of child sexual abuse

• Ellis and Aranbanel (1973265) 24 of the
  female subjects had sexual contact before
  adolescence
• OBrien and Goldstein (1988) 20 of all children,
  regardless of gender experienced some form of
  sexual abuse before their eighteenth birthday
• Briere (1989) sample of 193 male undergrads
• 21 reported sexual attraction
• 9 described sexual fantasies
• 5 admitted masturbating to such fantasies
• 7 indicated likelihood of having sex with a
  child if unlikely to be caught
• Still numbers irrelevant
• physical and emotional trauma considerable
• distinguish between homosexual/heterosexual,
  young/adult offenders

87
Effects of childhood sexual abuse

• Browne and Finkelhor (1986)
• short term effects include fear, depression,
  anger, hostility, aggression, and inappropriate
  sexual behaviour
• marked short term effects for 1 in 5
• long term effects include depression, self
  destructive behaviour, anxiety, feelings of
  isolation, sexual maladjustment, self esteem,
  substance abuse
• Effects are more marked if
• Longer lasting experiences
• more incidents
• genital contact
• force
• adult male offender
• father figure

88
Victim gender differences

• Boys and men
• threaten masculine invulnerability, creating
  additional barriers to admitting either
  victimisation or harm, and possibly contributing
  to a stronger tendency to gravitate to the
  perpetrator role
• Hepburn 1994, Mendel 1995
• Girls
• Sexual abuse seen as an early lesson in
  subordination for girls, confirming gender
  identity (Russell, 1986)
• Victim stance orientation
• Levesque (1994) girls experienced more physical
  injury, more force and threats and more likely to
  resist.
• There is no evidence to support a specific
  syndrome or single traumatic process which is a
  consequence of abuse Kendall - Tackett et al 1995

89
Meaning impact and coping with childhood sexual
abuse

• Kelly Burton Regan 1998
• The earlier the abuse began in childhood, the
  more complex the levels of impact and
  consequences were, since young children had fewer
  resources to cope with, and make sense of, what
  was happening to them
• The most common coping strategies used at the
  time and over time were forms of
  disassociation Splitting of the mind and
  body at the time of the assaults, creating a safe
  fantasy world and/ or imaginary friends, and
  forgetting incidents or even whole periods of
  life

90
TYPES OF PEDOPHILES

• Differ in preferred age or gender
• Sexual preference does not reflect adult sexual
  orientation
• The Mysoped
• Specifically want to harm their victims
  physically
• Sexual AROUSAL EQUATED WITH FATAL VIOLENCE
• Child stranger
• Stalk and abduct rather than seduce
• Often mutilates body and necrophilia
• Terrorises child
• Crime premeditated and ritualised
• Low degree of contact with children outside
  offences
• Low in social competence
• Sadists more likely to use weapon
• Removed from homes as children
• Violent in relationship with others
• Other violent and non violence non sexual
  offences
• History of substance abuse

91

• The regressed child offender
• Historically involved with adults in normal
  sexual rels
• Precipitating cause situation or occurrence in
  life
• Prefers children he does not know
• Prefers females
• Amenable to treatment
• Better adjusted, intact home
• Least likely to be a recividivist

92

• Fixated offender
• Fixated at an earlier stage of development
• No precipitating cause interest in children is
  persistent continual and compulsive
• Prefers males
• Little activity with age mates, prefers company
  of children, uncomfortable with adults
• Lifestyle and behaviour is childish
• Finds children to be less critical
• Loves children and not interested in harming them
• Courts and seduces a child slowly becomes
  physically intimate
• Naïve offender
• Do not understand the true nature of their
  offences or the societal rules prohibiting sexual
  involvement with children
• Unable to appreciate the impact of what they have
  done

93
Etiology

• Salter (1989) number of predisposing factors
• Deviant arousal patterns
• Acting out responses to non sexual problems
• Home with domineering mothers ad passive or
  missing fathers
• Low self esteem and poor coping skills
• Childhood sexual abuse
• Traits of pedophiles
• Most pedophiles are men
• Low self esteem
• Heightened arousal to children
• Challenged social skills
• Criminal records
• Feelings of remorse
• Multiple sexual victims

94
Management

• not cure
• helping offenders make more successful
  adjustments to their lives
• multi method approach
• break behaviour down into manageable segments and
  typologies
• denial
• segregation in prison

95
INCEST

• most emotive reaction
• incestuous families background of social and
  emotional disorder, mental impairment, alcohol
  abuse, family composition and lifestyle

96

• Any use of a minor child to meet the sexual or
  sexual/emotional needs of one or more persons
  whose authority is derived through ongoing
  bonding with that child (Blume, 1987)

97
Etiology of the incestuous offender

• common motivational factor is that the male
  partner retaliating against the female for actual
  or imagined unfaithfulness
• men may feel that children are their sexual
  property
• lack of impulse control
• confusion of roles whereby the child becomes an
  object for the needs of the adult without the
  ability to meet those needs.
• Crosses generations
• Symptom of a multi problem based family
• the family is socially isolated
• the male caretaker has a high level of control
  within the family
• the family has a high emphasis on moral and
  religious issues
• highly distressed relationship between parents or
  caretakers
• parents record substantial sexual discord
• incestuous families background of social and
  emotional disorder, mental impairment, alcohol
  abuse, family composition and lifestyle

98

• management
• adverse family attitudes and living conditions
  call for social and other intervention rather
  than punitive wrath
• supervision of younger members of the family and
  effect removal if behaviour escalates
• restore family functioning not destroy it further
• prison exacerbates the problem

99
RAPE

• Rape is a cri