International Developments in Integrated Coastal Management

1
International Developments in Integrated Coastal
Management
2
General Prescriptions and Guidelines for ICM
3
General Prescriptions and Guidelines for ICM

• UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (1973-1982)
• UN Conference on Environment and Development
  (UNCED 1992)
• Agenda 21
• Rio Declaration of Principles
• Climate Change Convention
• Biological Diversity Convention
• Global Program of Action on Protection of the
  Marine Environment from Land-based Activities
  1995
• Programme of Action for the Sustainable
  Development of Small Island Developing States
  1994
• International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)

4
1982 Law of the Sea Convention Innovative
Components

• The Exclusive Economic Zone
• The concept of sovereignty in EEZ context
• The archipelagic state and the concept of
  archipelagic waters
• Formal recognition of the common heritage of
  mankind
• Establishment of the International Seabed
  Authority (ISA)

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Maritime Zone Claims
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Limitations of the LOS Provisions regarding ICM

• The LOS
• Delimits ocean zones under national jurisdiction
• Specifies the rights and responsibilities of
  nations in these zones
• Set forth general principles for governing
  specific ocean uses (e.g., fishing operations,
  oil and gas development)
• Set standards for marine environmental protection

7
Limitations of the LOS Provisions regarding ICM

• However, the LOS provide little guidance on
• How to govern ocean resources in an integrated
  manner
• How to deal with the effects of one use on other
  uses
• How to deal with conflicts among uses
• How to bring ocean and coastal management
  together
• How to develop institutional mechanisms for ocean
  and coastal management

8
UNCED 1992

• The Rio Earth Summit highlighted two major
  findings of particular relevance to the oceans
• Environment and development are part of an
  indivisible whole and consequently must be dealt
  with together
• Governance of ocean and coastal areas must be
  integrated in content, and precautionary and
  anticipatory in ambit

9
UNCED 1992

• Agenda 21
• Climate Change Convention
• Biodiversity Convention
• GPA for Protection of the Marine Environment from
  Land-Based Activities
• Barbados Programme of Action for SIDS
• Coral Reef Protection

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Agenda 21

• Agenda 21, a forty-chapter action plan, was
  intended to serve as road map pointing the
  direction toward sustainable development.
• It represents an ambitious effort to provide
  recommendations across the entire spectrum of
  environment, development, and social issues
  confronting humankind today. In terms of social
  and economic issues, it addresses poverty,
  over-consumption and production, population, and
  human development problems.

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Agenda 21 Chapter 17 Oceans and Coasts

• A. Integrated management and sustainable
  development of coastal and marine areas,
  including Exclusive Economic Zones
• Stresses need to reach integration, application
  of preventive and precautionary approaches, and
  full public participation
• Establish/strengthen mechanisms for integrated
  coastal/marine management at both national and
  local levels
• B. Marine Environmental Protection
• C. High Seas Fisheries
• D. Fisheries under National Jurisdiction
• E. Critical Uncertainties (Climate Change)
• F. Strengthening International Cooperation
  (especially at the regional level)
• G. Special Problems of Small Island Developing
  States

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Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)

• The major objective of the Framework Convention
  on Climate Change (opened for signature at the
  Earth Summit and entered into force in March
  1994) is to achieve the "stabilization of
  greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
  at a level that would prevent dangerous
  anthropogenic interference with the climate
  system" (Art. 2).

13
Framework Convention on Climate Change

• In Article 4 of the Convention
• ... nations commit themselves to develop
  integrated plans for coastal zone management ...
  and thus the Convention reinforces the more
  general prescriptions concerning ICM contained in
  Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and shows how this
  management concept can relate to adaptation to
  the impacts of climate change...

14
Framework Convention on Climate Change

• In February 1997, an international workshop was
  convened in Taipei, Taiwan (Republic of China),
  to further develop ways to fit climate change
  adaptation planning, into the framework of ICM.
  Guidelines for dealing with climate change within
  an ICM framework were formulated.

15
The Convention on Biological Diversity

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was
  opened for signature at UNCED in 1992 and entered
  into force in December 1994 after ratification by
  thirty nations.
• Objectives
• 1) Conservation of biological diversity
• 2) Sustainable use of its components
• 3) Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
  arising from the utilization of genetic resources

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Convention on Biological Diversity

• In the Second Conference of the Parties (Jakarta,
  1995), Decision II/10 on Conservation and
  Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal Biological
  Diversity
• ...encourages the use of integrated marine and
  coastal area management as the most suitable
  framework for addressing human impacts on marine
  and coastal biological diversity and for
  promoting conservation and sustainable use of
  this biodiversity...

17
The Convention on Biological Diversity

• ...encourages parties to establish and/or
  strengthen ... institutional, administrative, and
  legislative arrangements for the development of
  integrated management of marine and coastal
  areas, and their integration within national
  development plans.

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The UNEP Global Program of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities (UNEP-GPA)

• Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 invited UNEP's Governing
  Council to convene an inter-governmental meeting
  on protection of the marine environment from
  land-based activities to address the urgent need
  to deal more effectively with marine pollution
  associated with land-based activities, the cause
  of the bulk of pollution found in marine waters
  today. After several preparatory meetings, the
  conference which took place in Washington, D.C.,
  in October-November 1995 adopted the Global
  Program of Action and the Washington Declaration,
  which highlights major aspects of the Global
  Program of Action.

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The Global Program of Action for the Protection
of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities

• Prescription
• 19. States should ... focus on sustainable,
  pragmatic and integrated environmental management
  approaches and processes such as integrated
  coastal area management, harmonized, as
  appropriate, with river basin management and land
  use plans.

20
Global Conference on the Sustainable Development
of Small Island Developing States

• The Global Conference on the Sustainable
  Development of Small Island Developing States,
  one of several conferences recommended in Chapter
  17 of Agenda 21, was held in Barbados in
  April-May 1994. Its purpose was to explore the
  special problems of small-island developing
  states (SIDS), such as those related to their
  size, limited resources, special environmental
  problems, and vulnerability to newly recognized
  threats such as accelerating sea-level rise. From
  the conference came a comprehensive Programme of
  Action for the Sustainable Development of Small
  Island Developing States, currently in the
  implementation stage.

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Global Conference on the Sustainable Development
of Small Island Developing States

• Three of nine substantive issue areas contained
  in the Programme of Action (climate change and
  sea-level rise, coastal and marine resources, and
  tourism resources) call for the formulation of
  new policies and programs in the context of
  integrated coastal area management.
• A strengthened capacity for integration of
  economic and environmental policy in national
  planning and across sectors was also called for
  in the Programme of Action, dealing with national
  institutions and administrative capacity.

22
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)

• Built on existing programs and expertise, ICRI
  combines national and international efforts to
  conserve and manage coral reefs and their related
  ecosystems, including mangrove forests and sea
  grass beds. Founded by the United States, Japan,
  Australia, Jamaica, France, the United Kingdom,
  the Philippines, and Sweden, the major purpose of
  the ICRI is to raise global and local awareness
  and to obtain national, regional, and global
  commitments to conserve and sustainably use coral
  reefs and their associated ecosystems.

23
International Coral Reef Initiative

• A Global Workshop (Dumaguete, Philippines, 1995)
  adopted a Call to Action that contains a clear
  endorsement of integrated coastal management as a
  framework for achieving the sustainable use of,
  and maintaining the health of, coral reefs and
  associated environments.

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ICM Guidelines by Various Institutions
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International Guidelines in ICM

• OECD (1991)
• Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Management
  (World Bank 1993)
• IUCN (1993)
• World Coast Conference (1993)
• Cross-Sectoral Integrated Coastal Area Planning
  Guidelines and Principles for Coastal Area
  Development (Pernetta and Elder 1995)
• Enhancing the Success of ICM (Chua 1996)
• Guidelines for Integrating Coastal Management
  Programs and National Climate Change Action Plans
  (Cicin-Sain et al. 1997)
• European Union guidelines on ICM (1999)
• ICM guidelines for Convention on Biological
  Diversity (2000)
• UNEP River Basin Information Systems Initiative
  (2002)

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Progress on ICM
27
Progress on ICM

• New funding many new starts in ICM

• Inter-American Development Bank
• World Bank
• Global Environment Facility
• Swedish aid agency (SIDA/SAREC)
• Canadian aid agency (CIDA)
• Many other national donors
• UN agencies (UNDP, UNEP, IOC, IMO, etc.)

28
Progress on ICM

• Growth in Capacity for ICM e.g. examples of
  new educational/research programs in ICM

• International Ocean Institute 12 operational
  centers (funded by GEF)
• UN Train-Sea-Coast Program (8 centers)
• Center for Maritime Policy (University of
  Wollongong)
• Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean
  Studies (University of Tasmania)
• Malaysian Institute of Marine Affairs (MIMA)

29
Progress on ICM

• Growth in Capacity for ICM e.g., examples of
  new educational/research programs in ICM

• Asia-Pacific Centre for Environmental Law
  (National University Singapore)
• Rhodes Academy of Ocean Law
• University of Portsmouth, University of
  Bournemouth, University of Warwick
  (offering coastal management programs)
• Institute for Coastal Resource Management
  (University of Technology, Sydney)

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Progress at the National Level

• Comparisons between 1993 and 2000
• Largely captures process indicators

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Paths to Change
32
Emphasis on

• Country activities on ICM
• Environmental initiatives
• Sustainable development institutions
• ICM initiatives at national and local level
• Coastal/marine laws, policies and/or
  prescriptions
• Coastal/marine coordinating body
• Other initiatives (MPAs, Biodiversity, Climate,
  etc.)
• Role of donor funding

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Patterns of ICM Development Around the World
34
Integrated Coastal Management 2000
35
ICM Challenges

• ICM implementation at national and local levels

• Better and more extensive evaluations needed

• Donors and others need to evaluate the
  effectiveness of the pilot project
  approach to ICM
• Need to scale up and encompass larger areas
  of coastal zone

• Need for clearinghouse mechanism on ICM

• More comparative studies-- lesson drawing

36
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD)Johannesburg, South Africa

• Process and Outcomes

37
WSSD Context

• The South position
• Northern responsibility for the global
  environmental crisis
• Emphasis on Souths natural resources
• Faulty lending institutions and trade systems
• Emphasis on technical assistance and capacity
  building and access to and transfer of
  environmentally sound technology
• Use of the UNCED forum to tackle issues not being
  handle well in other fora
• Preference for new international institutions

38
WSSD Context

• The North position
• Not taking responsibility for global
  environmental crisis
• Tending to blame the global environmental crisis
  on overpopulation problems in the South
• Refusing to accept the need for changes in
  lifestyle in the developed world
• Opposition to new and additional financial
  resources, also preference for bilateral, rather
  than multilateral aid
• Avoid bringing into the UNCED process topics that
  are the subject of other negotiations

39
The Road to Johannesburg

• Initially, oceans, coasts, and islands not on the
  WSSD agenda
• Broad coalition of NGOs, IOs, and key government
  leaders
• A number of conferences highlighted importance of
  oceans and the agenda that needs to be addressed
  (Paris (overall oceans agenda)), Bonn
  (freshwater), Montreal (GPA), Reykjavik
  (fisheries)
• Key role of Alliance of Small Island States
  (AOSIS)

40
The Road to Johannesburg

• Mobilization of governments and NGOs in PrepCom 3
  and 4
• Creation of informal coordinating group on
  oceans, coasts, and islands before WSSD to
  coordinate WSSD oceans events and develop a
  strategy for working with the governments in
  post-WSSD implementation

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Achievements since 1992

• Significant institutional development has taken
  place
• The adoption and partial implementation of a
  number of major ocean-related agreements
• (e.g., LOS, UNFSA, FAO compliance agreement and
  code of conduct, GPA, CBD (Biosafety Protocol,
  Jakarta Mandate), ICRI, Barbados Plan of Action
  for SIDS, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Rio
  Principles, IMO agreements, regional conventions,
  etc.)

42
Achievements since 1992

• Major initiatives by governments in ocean and
  coastal management at both national and local
  levels
• 98 countries engaged in ICM in 2000 compared to
  59 countries in 1993
• 46 of coastal countries have enacted coastal
  legislation
• 42 have created a coordinating mechanism for
  oceans/coasts (e.g. inter-agency coordinating
  committee)

43
Achievements since 1992

• Significant new funding invested on oceans and
  coasts
• Examples
• GEF International Waters Initiative 438
  million, Biodiversity, 244 million, Climate
  change, 60 million
• Asian Development Bank, 1.2 billion
• Donor investment in Latin America, 1.3 billion
• World Bank investment in Africa, 500 million

44
Achievements since 1992

• Significant progress made in scientific
  understanding of oceans and coasts, e.g.
• An Integrated Global Ocean Observing Strategy
  (IGOS) is being developed (GOOS, GTOS, GCOS)
• Significant progress in understanding earth
  system science (World Climate Research Project,
  IGBP, International Human Dimensions Programme on
  Global Environmental Change, etc.)

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Challenges and Constraints

• The on-the-ground conditions of ocean resources
  and coastal communities remain poor

46
Challenges and Constraints/2

• Examples
• Poverty continues largely unabated and
  unhealthful conditions predominate in coastal
  communities, especially in coastal megacities
  (e.g., 90 of sewage in developing countries is
  untreated, 250 million cases of gastroenteritis)

47
Challenges and Constraints/3

• Overutilization of fisheries

Status of global fisheries stocks
(FAO 1997)
UNDER-EXPLOITED 9
MODERATELY EXPLOITED 23
FULLY TO HEAVILY EXPLOITED 44
Biomass
OVER-EXPLOITED 16
RECOVERING
DEPLETED 6
3
Fishing mortality
48
Challenges and Constraints /4

• Overutilization of Fisheries

240
220
200
Demand
180
'000 tonnes
Supply
160
140
120
100
1995/97
2000
2005
2010
2015
2030
(Garcia 2001)
Supply
Demand
49
Challenges and Constraints/5

• 70 of marine mammal species are threatened
• 58 of coral reefs are threatened (500 million
  depend on coral reefs for food and income)
• 46 million people per year at risk of flooding

50
Challenges and Constraints/6

• Some institutional issues
• Increased fragmentation and lack of coordination
  among international conventions and institutions.
• Many ICM projects of small scale or pilot nature
  leaving large parts of the coastal areas and
  oceans without management.
• Donors have often funded single issue coastal
  projects in the same national context with few
  connections among the projects.

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Need to Harmonize International Agreements
Convention on Biological Diversity
Climate Change Convention
Law of the Sea
Rio Principles
Agenda 21
Local Implementation Level
52
Need to Harmonize International Agreements
Convention on Biological Diversity
Climate Change Convention
Law of the Sea
Rio Principles
Agenda 21
Local Implementation Level (e.g. Western Samoa)

• Coordinating mechanism at global level
• Coordinating mechanism at regional level

53
Progress at the World Summit

• Governments have responded to the alarming on
  the ground trends.
• Significant new targets and timetables have been
  established.

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Summary of the Negotiated Text1) Cross-Sectoral
Aspects
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Summary of the Negotiated Text2) Fisheries
56
Summary of the Negotiated Text3) Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Functions
57
Summary of the Negotiated Text4) Marine Pollution
58
Summary of the Negotiated Text5) Maritime
Transportation and 6) Science
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Summary of the Negotiated Text7) SIDS Issues
60
Unfinished Agenda

• There are no targets and timetables yet for
  achieving integrated management of coastal areas
  and EEZs. Need to
• -- move from small pilot projects to a more
  complete coverage of each nations coastal and
  ocean areas
• --in coastal areas and oceans nearshore,
• have seen significant experimentation in the
  past decade-- now the time is ripe for
  implementation on a larger scale

61
Unfinished Agenda

• On EEZs, oceans further offshore, challenge is
  one of new policy development
• For both coasts and oceans, development of
  national policies and action plans is needed
• As well as coastal and ocean institutions to
  implement such policies and plans

62
Unfinished Agenda

• A top priority of coastal programs should be
  the alleviation of poverty and the generation of
  sustainable livelihoods from the ocean by
  targeting donor aid more explicitly on poverty
  reduction and public health improvement in
  coastal areas of developing countries.

63
Unfinished Agenda

• Need to undertake a broad diplomatic process for
  wider ratification, implementation, and
  especially enforcement of multilateral agreements
  related to oceans, coasts, and islands, and
• Need to assist developing countries in joint
  implementation of clusters of oceans agreements.