Race and Ethnicity

1
Chapter 9

• Race and Ethnicity

2
What Is Race?

• Some people view race as
• Skin color the Caucasian race,
• Religion the Jewish race
• Nationality the British race
• Entire human species the human race

3
Race and Biology

• A race is a category of people who have been
  singled out as inferior or superior, on the basis
  of real or alleged physical characteristics such
  as skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or other
  attributes.
• Race has little meaning biologically due to
  interbreeding in the human population.

4
The Social Construction of Race

• It is culture, rather than biology that defines a
  racial group.
• Definitions change with historical and cultural
  circumstances.

5
Characteristics of Ethnic Groups

• Unique cultural traits.
• A sense of community.
• A feeling of ethnocentrism.
• Ascribed membership from birth.
• Tendency to occupy a geographic area.

6
Dominant (majority) and Subordinate (minority)
Groups

• A dominant or majority group is one that is
  advantaged and has superior resources and rights
  in a society.
• A subordinate or minority group is one whose
  members are disadvantaged and subjected to
  unequal treatment by the dominant group and who
  regard themselves as objects of collective
  discrimination.

7
Examples of Minority Groups?

• Race
• Ethnicity
• Gender
• Sexual Orientation
• Age
• Disability
• Religion

Some people experience Double Jeopardy
8
Prejudice

• A negative attitude based on generalizations
  about members of selected racial, ethnic, or
  other groups.
• Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to regard
  ones own culture and group as the standard.
• Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about the
  appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of
  members of particular categories.

9
Racism

• A set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used
  to justify the superior treatment of one racial
  or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of
  another racial or ethnic group.
• A form of prejudice, where the belief is that
  inherited physical characteristics associated
  with racial groups determine unequal abilities
  and characteristics

10
Prejudice can be maintained by

• The Self-fulfilling prophesy
• Social distance

11
Bogardus Social Distance Rating Scale
Person expresses a willingness to interact with
minority group member in increasingly close
proximity 1. As a marriage partner 2. As my
close friends 3. As my Neighbors 4. As workers in
my company 5. As citizens of my country 6. As
visitors to my country 7. Prohibited from
entering my country
12
Theories of Prejudice

• Frustrationaggression hypothesis
• People who are frustrated in their efforts to
  achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a
  pattern of aggression toward others.
• Authoritarian Personality
• Characterized by excessive conformity,
  submissiveness to authority, intolerance,
  insecurity, a high level of superstition, and
  rigid, stereotypic thinking.

13
Theories of Prejudice, continued

• Socialization and lack of contact
• Ideology of the American dream - encourages
  prejudice toward the socially disadvantaged

14
Discrimination

• While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is
  a behavior.

15
Mertons Typology ofPrejudice and Discrimination
16
Four Major Types of Discrimination

• Isolate discrimination - A prejudiced judge
  giving harsher sentences to African American
  defendants.
• Small-group discrimination - Small group of white
  students defacing a professors office with
  racist epithets.

17
Four Major Types of Discrimination

• Direct institutionalized discrimination -
  Intentional exclusion of people of color from
  public accommodations.
• Indirect institutionalized discrimination Does
  not necessarily involve conscious intent.

18
Contact Hypothesis

• Contact between divergent groups should be
  positive as long as group members
• Have equal status.
• Pursue the same goals.
• Cooperate with one another to achieve goals.
• Receive positive feedback while interacting.

19
Contact Hypothesis

• Contact between divergent groups should be
  positive as long as group members
• Have equal status.
• Pursue the same goals.
• Cooperate with one another to achieve goals.
• Receive positive feedback while interacting.

20
Functionalist Perspectives on Race and Ethnic
Relations

• Assimilation A process by which members of
  subordinate racial and ethnic groups become
  absorbed into the dominant culture.
• Ethnic PluralismThe coexistence of a variety of
  distinct racial and ethnic groups within one
  society.

21
Conflict Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations

• The Caste Perspective views racial and ethnic
  inequality as a permanent feature of U.S.
  society.
• Class perspectives emphasize the role of the
  capitalist class in racial exploitation.

22
Conflict Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations

• Internal Colonialism occurs when members of a
  racial or ethnic group are forcibly placed under
  the control of the dominant group.
• Split Labor Market - The division of the economy
  into a primary sector composed of higher paid
  workers in more secure jobs, and a secondary
  sector of lower-paid workers in jobs with little
  security.

23
Critical Race Theory

• Premises
• The belief that racism is such an ingrained
  feature of U.S. society that it appears to be
  ordinary and natural to many people.
• The belief that interest convergence is a crucial
  factor in bringing about social change.

24
Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States

• Native Americans
• White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
• African Americans
• White Ethnic Americans
• Asian Americans
• Latinos/as
• Middle Eastern Americans

25
Time Line of Racial and Ethnic Groups in the
United States
26
Native Americans

• Most disadvantaged group in the U.S. in terms of
  income, employment, housing, and nutrition.
• As a group they have experienced
• Genocide
• Forced Migration
• Forced Assimilation

27
Early Contact with Europeans

• Arrived 12,000 to 50,000 years ago. Native
  American populations estimates vary from 10 to
  100 million
• Physical and cultural differences were
  interpreted ethnocentrically as proof of
  inferiority
• All tribes and nations lumped together as
  Indians

28
Two Concerns have Dominated Government Policy

• White takeover of native lands. Where there was
  desirable land, whites eventually took it.
• Transformation of native lifestyles into copies
  of approved white models. Native culture must be
  eradicated.

29
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1889

• The Indians must conform to the white mans
  ways peaceably if they will, forcibly if they
  must.

30
By the beginning of the 20th century

• The Indian population was unable to be self
  sufficient, was impoverished and at the mercy of
  the federal government. It numbered only about
  250,000.

31
Pervasive Inequality

• 84 of national average on high school
  graduation
• 42 of national average on college education
• 76 of national average household income
• Almost twice as likely to lack health insurance
• Nearly twice as likely to live in poverty

32
African-Americans

• Second largest minority group in the U.S., making
  up some 13 of the population.
• Arrived involuntarily - as slaves.
• Most African Americans could trace their ancestry
  in America to the early colonial period.

33
Epoch One Slavery

• Why African Americans?
• Physical appearance
• Ethnocentrism savages, inferior
• Powerlessness
• The Status of Slave
• No legal rights
• Property ownership forbidden
• Working for pay forbidden
• Entering into contracts forbidden
• Marriage not legally recognized
• Importance of social distance
• Racism as an ideological justification

34
Epoch Two The Jim Crow Era

• Loss of federal protection after Reconstruction
• Loss of voting rights
• Jim Crow laws
• Legally enforced segregation
• Housing
• Work
• Education
• Health care
• Transportation
• Religion
• Leisure
• Ideology of Social Darwinism

35
Epoch Three The Modern Era

• Important Legislation
• 1941 - Racial discrimination in federal jobs
  prohibited
• End of WWII Desegregation of the armed forces
• 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka
• 1964 Civil Rights Act
• Black Protest
• Non-violence as a tactic to fight segregation
• Black Power as an ideology to fight inequality
• Self-determination
• Self-image

36
Asian Americans

• 4 of the U.S. population.
• From Japan, China, South Asia, the Philippines,
  and Southeast Asia.
• Have the highest average household income of any
  major ethnic group.
• Japanese and Chinese-Americans surpass whites in
  educational attainment.

37
The History of Discrimination

• The Yellow Peril
• Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882
• The Gentlemens Agreement with Japan, 1907
• The Oriental Exclusion Act, 1924
• Japanese Internment, 1941

38
Asian Americans as the Model Minority

• Levels of achievement
• Median family income 29 above national average
• 44 of Asian Americans have at least Bachelors
  degrees (the U.S. average is 24)
• A positive or negative stereotype?

39
Factors in Asian American Economic Success

• Innate superiority?
• Pre-existing social and occupational standing
• Cultural Values (the achievement syndrome)
• The value of education
• Work ethic
• Family values

Core values of the Confucian and Buddhist
traditions Achievement, a cohesive family and
hard work.
40
 Hispanics

• Largest minority group in the U.S.
• Majority are of Mexican heritage, Latinos have
  also arrived in America from Cuba, Puerto Rico,
  and many Central and South American nations.
• Will make up about 20 of the U.S. population by
  the year 2050.

41
Who is Hispanic?

• Race or Ethnicity?
• Dominant groups label vs. self perception
• Ethnically diverse with different paths of entry
• Mexican
• Puerto Rican
• Cuban
• South and Central American

42
Hispanics

• Rapid growth rates raises concerns
• New immigrants are young and poorly educated
  resulting in lower income levels.
• Concerns among non-Hispanic Americans over
  competition for jobs.
• Increasing immigration results in segregation.

43
Hispanics and the Class System

• An In-Between Position
• The hierarchy Cubans/Mexicans/Puerto Ricans
• Factors inhibiting social mobility
• Education
• Age
• Language
• Changed economy

44
Hispanic Patterns of Assimilation

• Acculturation
• Language
• Ethnic community
• Proximity to country of origin
• Assimilation
• Secondary structural assimilation
• Primary structural assimilation

45
Middle Eastern Americans

• Includes immigrants from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,
  Iran, and Jordan.
• The Lebanese, Syrians, and Iranians primarily
  come from middle class backgrounds.
• Most Iranian immigrants initially hoped to return
  to Iran however, many have become U.S. citizens.

46
Why have some ethnic groups done better than
others (experienced social mobility)?

• Origin of Contact
• Conquest
• Annexation
• Voluntary Immigration
• Involuntary Immigration

• Degree of
• Ethnocentrism
• Degree of Physical difference, Cultural
  difference
• Competition
• Unequal distribution of power

47
Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States
48
Chapter 10

• Sex and Gender

49
 Sex and Gender

• Sex refers to the biological differences between
  females and males.
• Gender refers to the culturally and socially
  constructed differences between females and males.

50
Chapter 10

• Sex and Gender

51
Sex Characteristics

• At birth, male and female infants are
  distinguished by primary sex characteristics the
  genitalia used in the reproductive process.
• At puberty, an increased production of hormones
  results in the development of secondary sex
  characteristics physical traits that identify an
  individuals sex.

52
Sexual Orientation

• An individuals preference for emotionalsexual
  relationships with members of the opposite sex
  (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality),
  or both (bisexuality).

53
Sexual Orientation

• Homosexual and gay are most often used in
  association with males who prefer same-sex
  relationships.
• Lesbian is used in association with females who
  prefer same-sex relationships.
• Heterosexual individuals, who prefer opposite-sex
  relationships, are sometimes referred to as
  straight.

54
Sexual Orientation

• An individuals preference for emotionalsexual
  relationships with members of the opposite sex
  (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality),
  or both (bisexuality).

55
Hermaphrodites

• Caused by a hormone imbalance, a hermaphrodite
  has a combination of male and female genitalia.
• Western societies acknowledge two sexes, other
  societies recognize three
• Men
• Women
• Berdaches - males who behave, dress, work,and are
  treated as women.

http//www.coreymondello.com/Berdache.html
56
Gender The Cultural Dimension

• Most sex differences are socially constructed
  gender differences.
• Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and
  language of a society.
• Gender is used as a means to divide up work,
  allocate resources, and distribute power.

57
Sexism toward Women

• Three components
• Negative attitudes toward women.
• Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement,
  or justify the prejudice.
• Discrimination - acts that exclude, distance, or
  keep women separate.

58
Gender Stereotypes

• Men
• strong, rational, dominant, independent, less
  concerned with appearance
• Women
• weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious
  about appearance

59
What do we mean by Sexism?

• Sexism Men and women have biologically
  different capacities that form a legitimate
  reason for unequal treatment.

60
Gendered Division of Labor Hunting and Gathering
61
Gendered Division of Labor Horticultural and
Pastoral
62
Gendered Division of Labor Agrarian
63
Gendered Division of Labor Industrial
64
Single Mothers with ChildrenUnder 18

• Between 1990 and 2004, the number of U.S.
  families headed by single mothers increased by
  about 25.
• This marks a change in the roles of many women,
  and may indicate that traditional households
  are in decline in

65
Parents and Gender Socialization

• Children's clothing and toys reflect their
  parents' gender expectations.
• Children are often assigned household tasks
  according to gender.

66
Peers and Gender Socialization

• Peers help children learn gender-appropriate and
  inappropriate behavior.
• During adolescence, peers often are more
  effective at gender socialization than adults.
• College student peers play an important role in
  career choices and the establishment of long
  term, intimate relationships.

67
Schools and Gender Socialization

• Teachers provide messages about gender through
  classroom assignments and informal interactions
  with students.
• Teachers may unintentionally show favoritism
  toward one gender over the other.

68
Sports and Gender Socialization

• From elementary school through high school
• Boys play football.
• Girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill
  team, and homecoming queens.
• For many males, sports is a training ground for
  masculinity.

69
Mass Media and Gender Socialization

• On television
• Male characters typically are more aggressive,
  constructive, and direct.
• Females are deferential toward others or use
  manipulation to get their way.
• See page 302 (Greys Anatomy and Desperate
  Housewives)

70
The Wage Gap
71
The Wage Gap
72
The Wage Gap
73
Bachelors Degrees Earned, by Field, 1971 and 2000
74
Bachelors Degrees Earned, by Field, 1971 and 2000
75
Sex Differences in Earnings from the Same
Occupation
76
Views of Division of Labor by Gender
77
Structural-functional Theory of Gender Inequality

• Focuses on the functions of gendered division of
  labor
• Reduces competition between men and women.
• Makes both sexes specialists in their roles.
• Requires an interdependence of men and women.

78
Conflict Theory of Gender Inequality

• Subjugation of women to subordinate roles
  benefits men and capitalism.
• Capitalists benefit from a labor market that
  splits the interests of men and women workersin
  favor of men.
• Segmented labor market provides a low-wage female
  labor reserve.

79
The Human Capital Model

• According to this model, individuals vary in the
  amount of human capital they bring to the labor
  market.
• Human capital is acquired by education and job
  training it is the source of a persons
  productivity and can be measured in terms of the
  return on the investment (wages) and the cost
  (schooling or training) .

80
The Feminist Movement

• Up to the mid 19th Century
• Women could not vote
• Women could not own property
• Women could not enter into contracts
• Women could not testify in court
• First wave of feminism concentrated on gaining
  legal rights
• Second wave focused on extending legal rights and
  on gender issues, such as violence and gender
  stereotypes

81
Legislative Changes

• 19th Amendment Right to vote for women in 1920
• Title VII 1964 prohibits employment
  discrimination based on race, color, religion,
  sex and national origin.
• Title IX 1972 guarantees equal rights for women
  in education
• Financial aid
• Classes
• Health insurance
• Athletics

82
Male Disadvantages

• The male role does not encourage the cultivation
  of emotionally supportive relationships.
• Men may suffer serious stress from associating
  self-esteem with net worth.

83
Differences in Life Chances by Sex Health
Ratio of Men to women by Age Age Sex
Ratio 14-17 106.3 18-24 105.3 25-34 100.2
35-44 98.2 45-54 95.6 55-64 90 65-84
71.8 85 39.7
84
Chapter 11

• Families and Intimate Relationships

85
Chapter 11

• Families and Intimate Relationships

86
Traditional Definition of Family

• A group of people who are related by blood,
  marriage, or adoption, live together, are an
  economic unit, and bear and raise children.
• Is this definition still relevant today?

87
New Definition of Family

• Relationships in which people live together with
  commitment, form an economic unit and care for
  any young, and consider their identity to be
  significantly attached to the group.

88
The family is important throughout the life
course. It structures our lives and identities

• As we consider our lives from birth to death, we
  tend to think of ourselves in family roles. Being
  a youngster usually means growing up in a family
  being an adult usually means having a family
  being elderly often means being a grandparent.

89
Family Structure and Characteristics

• Kinship refers to a social network of people
  based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. 
• Family of orientation is the family into which a
  person is born and in which early socialization
  usually takes place.
• Family of procreation is the family a person
  forms by having or adopting children.

90
Family Structure and Characteristics

• An extended family is composed of relatives in
  addition to parents and children who live in the
  same household. A nuclear family is composed of
  one or two parents and their dependent children,
  all of whom live apart from other relatives.

91
Polling Question

• The strength of the American family is declining.
• Strongly agree
• Agree somewhat
• Unsure
• Disagree somewhat
• Strongly disagree

92
Dating and Mate Selection

• Today industrialized societies base commitment to
  marriage on love
• Romantic vs. familial love
• How do we fall in love?
• Sternbergs Triangle of Love
• Intimacypassiondecision/commitment consummate
  love
• Reisss Wheel of Love
• Rapport, Self revelation, mutual need dependency,
  personality need fulfillment

93
Marriage

• Legally recognized arrangement between two or
  more individuals that carries certain rights and
  obligations.
• Monogamy is the only form of marriage sanctioned
  by law in the United States.
• Establishes a system of descent so kinship can be
  determined.

94
Monogamy

• A marriage between two partners, usually a woman
  and a man.
• Through a pattern of marriage, divorce, and
  remarriage, some people practice serial
  monogamya succession of marriages in which a
  person has several spouses over a lifetime but is
  legally married to only one person at a time.

95
The reflection of traditional gender roles

• The median age at first marriage for women is
  25.3 and for men, 27.1
• 78 of wives have lower levels of education than
  do their husbands (for cohabiting couples, the
  number is 71)
• 98 of all stay at home parents are women
• Wives are more than twice as likely to be
  involved in eldercare responsibilities than are
  their husbands

96
Polgamy

• The concurrent marriage of a person of one sex
  with two or more members of the opposite sex.
• The most prevalent form of polygamy is
  polygynythe concurrent marriage of one man with
  two or more women.
• Polyandry is the concurrent marriage of one woman
  with two or more men.

97
Patterns of Unilineal Descent

• Patrilineal descent traces descent through the
  fathers side of the family.
• Matrilineal descent is a system of tracing
  descent through mothers side of the family.

98
Bilineal Descent

• Tracing kinship through both parents.
• The most common form is bilateral descent.
• A system of tracing descent through both the
  mothers and fathers sides of the family.

99
Power and Authority in Families

• A patriarchal family is a family structure in
  which authority is held by the eldest male.
• A matriarchal family is a family structure in
  which authority is held by the eldest female.
• An egalitarian family is a family structure in
  which both partners share power and authority
  equally.

100
Household Composition 1970 and 2000
101
Residential Patterns

• Patrilocal residence refers to a married couple
  living in the same household as the husbands
  family.
• Matrilocal residence refers to a married couple
  living in the same household as the wifes
  parents.
• Neolocal residence refers to a married couple
  living in their own residence apart from the
  husbands and the wifes parents.

102
Endogamy and Exogamy

• Endogamy is the practice of marrying within ones
  own group.
• In the United States, most people marry people
  who come from the same social class,
  racialethnic group, religious affiliation, and
  other categories considered important within
  their own social group.
• Exogamy is the practice of marrying outside ones
  own social group or category.

103
Theoretical Perspectives On Families             
104
Functionalist Perspective Four Functions of
Families

• Sexual regulation
• Socialization
• Economic and psychological support for members.
• Provision of social status and reputation.   

105
Conflict Perspective

• Families in capitalist economies are similar to
  workers in a factory
• Women are dominated at home the same way workers
  are dominated in factories.
• Reproduction of children and care for family
  members reinforce subordination of women through
  unpaid labor.

106
Cohabitation

• Refers to two people who live together, and think
  of themselves as a couple, without being legally
  married.
• A recent study of 11,000 women found that there
  was a 70 marriage rate for women who remained in
  a cohabiting relationship for at least 5 years.
• Of the women in that study who married their
  partner, 40 became divorced within a 10-year
  period.

107
Domestic Partnerships

• Household partnerships in which an unmarried
  couple lives together in a committed, sexually
  intimate relationship and is granted the same
  rights and benefits as those accorded to married
  heterosexual couples.

108
Homagamy

• The pattern of individuals marrying those who
  have similar characteristics, such as
  race/ethnicity, religious background, age,
  education, or social class.

109
Housework and Child-Care Responsibilities

• Today, more than 50 of all marriages in the
  United States are dual-earner marriagesmarriages
  in which both spouses are in the labor force.
• in 2004 more than 74 of employed mothers with
  children under age 6 worked full time
• Many married women work a full day then go home
  to perform hours of housework and child care.
• Sociologist Arlie Hochschild refers to this as
  the second shift.

110
Deciding to Have Children

• Sociologists suggest fertility is linked not only
  to reproductive technologies but also to womens
  beliefs about whether they have opportunities
  that are viable alternatives to childbearing.
• The desire not to have children often comes in
  conflict with our societys pronatalist
  bias,which assumes having children is the norm.

111
Infertility

• Defined as an inability to conceive after a year
  of unprotected sexual relations.
• Infertility affects nearly five million U.S.
  couples, or one in twelve couples in which the
  wife is between the ages of fifteen and forty
  four.

112
Adoption

• A legal process through which the rights and
  duties of parenting are transferred from a
  childs biological and/or legal parents to a new
  legal parent or parents.
• This gives the adopted child all the rights of a
  biological child.

113
Infertility

• Defined as an inability to conceive after a year
  of unprotected sexual relations.
• Infertility affects nearly five million U.S.
  couples, or one in twelve couples in which the
  wife is between the ages of fifteen and forty
  four.

114
Teen Pregnancy

• The United States has the highest rate of teen
  pregnancy in the Western industrialized world.

115
Primary Reasons for Teen Pregnancy Microlevel

• Many sexually active teens dont use
  contraceptives.
• Teenagers may receive little accurate information
  about the use of contraception.
• Some teenage males believe females should be
  responsible for contraception.
• Some teenagers view pregnancy as a way to gain
  adult status.

116
Single Parenting

• 42 of white children and 86 of African American
  children spend part of their childhood in a
  single parent household.
• Lesbian and gay parents are often counted as
  single parents, however many share parenting with
  partner.

117
U.S. Marital Status15 and over by Ethnicity
118
Characteristics of Those Likely to Get Divorced

• Marriage at an early age.
• A short acquaintanceship before marriage.
• Disapproval of the marriage by relatives and
  friends.
• Limited economic resources.

119
Characteristics of Those Likely to Get Divorced
(continued)

• Having a high-school education or less.
• Parents who are divorced or have unhappy
  marriages.
• The presence of children at the beginning of the
  marriage.

120
Divorce

• The legal process of dissolving a marriage that
  allows former spouses to remarry if they so
  choose.
• Recent studies have shown that 43 of first
  marriages end in separation or divorce within 15
  years.

121
Blended Families

• Some people become part of blended families,
  which consist of a husband and wife, children
  from previous marriages, and children (if any)
  from the new marriage.

122
Chapter 12 Education and Religion
123
Sociological Perspectives on Education

• Functionalists suggest that education contributes
  to the maintenance of society and provides
  opportunity for upward social mobility.
• Conflict theorists argue that education
  perpetuates social inequality.

124
Functions of Education

• Socialization
• Transmission of culture
• Social control
• Social placement
• Change and innovation

125
Conflict Perspective

• Education reproduces existing class
  relationships.
• Unequal funding is a source of inequality in
  education.
• Access to colleges and universities is determined
  not only by academic record but also by the
  ability to pay.

126
Cultural Capital and Class Reproduction

• According to the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu,
  students come to school with different amounts of
  cultural capital.
• socially approved dress and manners, knowledge
  about books, art, music
• The educational system teaches and reinforces
  values that sustain the elites position in
  society.

127
Dropping Out

• About 10 of people between the ages of 14 and 24
  left school before earning a high school diploma.
  
• Dropout Rates
• Latinos/(Hispanics) - 24
• African Americans - 12.2
• non-Hispanic whites - 7.9
• Asian Americans - 1

128
Community Colleges

• In 1948 a presidential commission report called
  for the establishment of a network of public
  community colleges that would
• charge little or no tuition
• serve as cultural centers
• be comprehensive in their program offerings
• serve the area in which they were located.

129
Community Colleges

• According to the American Association of
  Community Colleges (2005)
• There are 1,166 community colleges in the U.S.
• They enroll almost 12 million students.
• Community college enrollment accounts for 46 of
  U.S. undergraduates.
• Almost 40 of community college students receive
  financial aid.
• Women make up 58 of community college students.

130
Religion and the Meaning of Life

• Religion seeks to answer important questions such
  as why we exist, why people suffer and die, and
  what happens when we die.
• Religion seeks to explain suffering, death, and
  injustice in the realm of the sacred.
• Things that people do not set apart as sacred are
  referred to as profanethe everyday, secular or
  worldly aspects of life.

131
Functionalist Perspective

• Religion has 3 functions
• Providing meaning and purpose to life.
• Promoting social cohesion and a sense of
  belonging.
• Providing social control and support for
  important norms.

132
Conflict Perspective

• Religion as an ideology
• According to Karl Marx, religion is the "opiate
  of the people."

133
Major U.S. Denominations That Self-identify As
Christian
134
Major U.S. Denominations That Self-identify As
Christian
135
U.S. Religious BodiesMembership
136
U.S. Religious BodiesMembership
137
Consequences of Religiosity

• People with higher levels of religious
  affiliation tend to be friendlier, happier,
  cooperative, and more satisfied with their lives
  than others.
• Religious affiliation has also been linked to
  socially conservative and authoritarian attitudes
  that maintain the status quo.
• College women who regularly attend church are
  less likely to become pregnant and have fewer
  sexual partners

138
Chapter 13

• Politics and the Economy in Global Perspective

139
Politics, Power and Authority

• Politics is the social institution through which
  power is acquired and exercised by some people
  and groups.
• Government is the formal organization that has
  the legal and political authority to regulate
  relationships among members of a society and
  between the society and those outside its
  borders.

140
Ideal Types of Authority

• Traditional
• Kings, Queens, Emperors, religious dignitaries
• Charismatic
• politicians, soldiers, entertainers
• Rationallegal
• elected officials

141
Both mom and the state have power

• But they differ in the basis of their power, the
  range of their jurisdiction and the ways in which
  they can enforce their decisions.

142
Power and the State

• While other social institutions (such as the
  family or religion) or organizations (such as the
  workplace) or people may have power over us, the
  state exercises power over the society as a
  whole. It trumps the other bases of power.

143
Political Systems in Global Perspective

• Political institutions emerged when agrarian
  societies acquired surpluses and developed social
  inequality.
• When cities developed, the city-state became the
  center of political power.
• Nation-states emerged as countries acquired the
  ability to defend their borders.

144
Nation-states

• Approximately 190 nation-states currently exist
  throughout the world.
• Today, everyone is born, lives, and dies under
  the auspices of a nation-state.
• Four types of political systems are found in
  nation-states monarchy, authoritarianism,
  totalitarianism, and democracy.

145
Types of Political Systems

• Monarchy - A political system in which power
  resides in one person or family and is passed
  from generation to generation through lines of
  inheritance.
• Authoritarianism - A political system controlled
  by rulers who deny popular participation in
  government.

146
Types of Political Systems

• Totalitarianism - A political system in which the
  state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's
  public and private lives.
• Democracy - A political system in which the
  people hold the ruling power either directly or
  through elected representatives.

147
Functionalist Perspectives Pluralist Model

• The functions of government
• maintain law and order
• plan and direct society
• meet social needs
• handle international relations

148
Conflict Perspectives Elite Models

• Power in political systems is in the hands of a
  small group of elites and the masses are
  relatively powerless.
• Decisions are made by the elites, who agree on
  the basic values and goals of society.
• The needs and concerns of the masses are not
  often given full consideration by the elite.

149
Voter Apathy

• 10 of the voting-age population participates at
  a level higher than voting.
• Over the past 40 years, less than half the
  voting-age population has voted in
  nonpresidential elections.
• In many other Western nations, the average
  turnout is 80 to 90 of all eligible voters.

150
Why Eligible Voters Dont Vote

• Conservative argument
• People are satisfied with the status quo, are
  uninformed and lack an understanding of
  government processes.
• Liberal argument
• People feel alienated from politics due to
  corruption and influence peddling by special
  interests and large corporations.

151
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
152
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
153
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
154
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
155
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
156
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
157
The Economy

• The social institution that ensures the
  maintenance of society through the production,
  distribution, and consumption of goods and
  services.
• Goods are objects that are necessary or desired.
• Services are activities for which people are
  willing to pay.

158
Characteristics of Industrial Economies

• New forms of energy, mechanization, and the
  growth of the factory system.
• Increased division of labor and specialization
  among workers.
• Universal application of scientific methods to
  problem solving and profit making.

159
Characteristics of Industrial Economies

• Introduction of wage labor, time discipline, and
  workers deferred gratification.
• Strengthening of bureaucratic organizational
  structure.

160
Characteristics of the Postindustrial Economy

• Information displaces property as the central
  preoccupation in the economy.
• Workplace culture shifts away from factories and
  toward diverse work settings, the employee, and
  the manager.
• The conventional boundaries between work and home
  are breached.

161
Capitalism

• Four distinctive features
• Private ownership of the means of production.
• Pursuit of personal profit.
• Competition.
• Lack of government intervention.

162
The United States is actually not a pure
capitalist society

• Social welfare
• Social security
• Progressive taxation
• Public education
• Labor laws

163
Socialism

• Three distinctive features
• Public ownership of the means of production.
• Pursuit of collective goals.
• Centralized decision-making.

164
Example of a Democratic Socialist Nation

• Sweden

165
Five Characteristics of Professions

• Abstract, specialized knowledge
• Autonomy
• Self regulation
• Authority
• Altruism

166
SAT Scores by Parents Income and Education, 2004
167
Types of Unemployment

• Cyclical - result of lower rates of production
  during recessions.
• Seasonal - result of shifts in the demand for
  workers based on holidays.
• Structural - skills needed by employers do not
  match skills of unemployed.

168
Labor Unions and Strikes

• In recent years, strike activity has diminished
  as workers fear losing their jobs.
• In 2002 only 19 strikes involving more than 1,000
  workers were reported.
• Number of workers involved in the actions
  declined from more than 2.5 million in 1971 to
  192,000 in 1995.

169
Employment For Persons With A Disability

• Workers with a disability make 85 (men) and 70
  (women) of what coworkers without disabilities
  earn.
• A survey of executives responsible for making
  hiring decision for their companies found that
  the average cost of workplace modifications to
  accommodate employees with a disability was less
  than 500.

170
Chapter 14

• Health, Health Care, and Disability

171
Health, Health Care, and Medicine

• Health is a state of physical, mental, and social
  well-being.
• Health care is any activity intended to improve
  health.
• Medicine is an institutionalized system for the
  scientific diagnosis, treatment, and prevention
  of illness.

172
Social Epidemiology

• Study of the causes and distribution of health,
  and disease in a population
• Disease agents insects, bacteria, nutrient
  agents, pollutants, and temperature.
• Environment - physical, biological and social
  environments.
• Human host -demographic factors such as age,
  sex, and race/ethnicity.

173
John Snow and the London Cholera Epidemic of 1854

• On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly
  all the deaths had taken place within a short
  distance of the Broad Street pump. There were
  only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly
  nearer to another street-pump. In five of these
  cases the families of the deceased persons
  informed me that they always sent to the pump in
  Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that
  of the pumps which were nearer. In three other
  cases, the deceased were children who went to
  school near the pump in Broad Street...
• With regard to the deaths occurring in the
  locality belonging to the pump, there were 61
  instances in which I was informed that the
  deceased persons used to drink the pump water
  from Broad Street, either constantly or
  occasionally...
• The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there
  has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of
  cholera in this part of London except among the
  persons who were in the habit of drinking the
  water of the above-mentioned pump well.
• I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of
  St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst
  Sept 7, and represented the above circumstances
  to them. In consequence of what I said, the
  handle of the pump was removed on the following
  day.

174
Demographic Factors Age

• Rates of illness and death are highest among the
  old and the young.
• After age 65, rates of chronic diseases and
  mortality increase rapidly.
• Chronic diseases are long term or lifelong and
  develop gradually or are present from birth.
• Acute diseases strike suddenly and cause dramatic
  incapacitation and sometimes death.

175
Demographic Factors Sex

• Prior to the 20th century, women had lower life
  expectancies because of high mortality rates
  during pregnancy and childbirth.
• Women now live longer than men.
• For babies born in the United States in 2003,
  life expectancy at birth was 74.8 years for males
  and 80.1 years for females.

176
Demographic Factors Race/Ethnicity and Social
Class

• According to a study by the Stanford Center for
  Research in Disease Prevention, people have a
  higher survival rate if they live in
  better-educated or wealthier neighborhoods.
• People of color are more likely to have incomes
  below the poverty line, and the poorest people
  receive less preventive care and less management
  of chronic diseases.

177
Lifestyle Factors Alcohol and Tobacco

• Chronic heavy drinking or alcoholism can cause
  permanent damage to the brain or other parts of
  the body.
• Tobacco is responsible for about one in every
  five deaths in this country.

178
Lifestyle Factors Illegal Drugs

• High doses of marijuana smoked during pregnancy
  can result in congenital abnormalities and
  neurological disturbances.
• Some studies found an increased risk of cancer
  and lung problems associated with marijuana
  because its smokers are believed to inhale more
  deeply than tobacco users.
• People who use cocaine over extended periods of
  time have higher rates of infection, heart
  problems, internal bleeding, hypertension and
  stroke.

179
Lifestyle Factors Sexually Transmitted Diseases

• Sexual activity can result in the transmission of
  sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including
  AIDS, gonorrhea, syphilis, and genital herpes.
• Prior to 1960, the incidence of STDs in this
  country had been reduced sharply by barrier-type
  contraceptives and the use of penicillin as a
  cure.
• In the 1960s and 1970s the number of cases of
  STDs increased rapidly with the introduction of
  the birth control pill, which led to couples
  being less likely to use barrier contraceptives.

180
AIDS/HIV

• In 2006, there are approximately one million
  persons in the U.S. with HIV/AIDS
• 40,000 new infections will occur this year
• Global Adult prevalence of AIDS
• U.S. About 1 in 100
• Western and Central Europe About 1 in 300
• Middle East and North Africa About 1 in 500
• Sub-Saharan Africa About 1 in 17
• Highest risk groups in the U.S. is gay black men

181
Human Papilloma Virus HPV may be the most common
STD in the United States

• It is also the major cause of cervical cancer.

182
Study of HPV on a College Campus

• 604 college women were administered a
  questionnaire to obtain personal and sexual
  behavior information. They were also given a
  pelvic examination and Pap smear.

183
Findings

• 27.8 of the subjects were positive for HPV
• Three main areas of risk
• Having multiple male sex partners
• The partners level of promiscuity
• The prevalence of HPV in the womans sexual pool
• Black or Hispanic ethnicity
• Currently not attending college

184
Other Findings

• Living with persons who smoked increased the risk
  of HPV infection
• Sex while intoxicated was a risk factor
• Attending religious services frequently was
  associated with a lowered risk
• Only vaginal sex was related to a higher
  incidence of infection

185
The Flexner Report

• Abraham Flexner met with the leading faculty at
  the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
  to develop a model of medical education.
• The model included the belief that a medical
  school should be a research-oriented, laboratory
  facility that devoted all of its energies to
  teaching and research, not to the practice of
  medicine.
• He visited each of the 155 medical schools then
  in existence, comparing them with the model.

186
The Flexner Report

• As a result of the Flexner report (1910), all but
  two African American medical schools were closed,
  and only one medical school for women survived.
• As a result, white women and people of color were
  largely excluded from medical education for the
  first half of the 20th century.
• Until the civil rights movement and the womens
  movement of the 1960s and 1970s, most physicians
  were white, male, and upper- or upper-middle
  class.

187
Types of Heath Care Delivery Systems

• Universal Health Care
• Socialized Medicine
• Fee for Service

188
Paying for Medical Care in the U.S.

• Private Health Insurance cited as the main
  reason for medical inflation, gives doctors and
  hospitals an incentive to increase costs.
• Public Health Insurance projections call for
  Medicaid spending to double and Medicare spending
  to triple in the next few years.

189
The U.S. Health Care System

• Health Maintenance Organizations provide total
  care with an emphasis on prevention.
• Managed care monitors and controls health care
  providers' decisions, insurance company has the
  right to refuse to pay for treatment.

190
Increase in Cost of Health Care, 19702004
191
Persons Not Covered by Health Insurance, by State
192
Holistic and Alternative Medicine

• Holistic medicine focuses on prevention of
  illness and disease and is aimed at treating the
  whole person rather than just the part or parts
  in which symptoms occur.
• Alternative medicine includes healing practices
  inconsistent with dominant medical practice.

193
The Sick Role

• The sick are not responsible for their condition.
• The sick are temporarily exempt from their normal
  role obligations.
• The sick must want to get well.
• The sick must seek help from a medical
  professional to hasten their recovery.

194
Sociological Perspectives on Health and Medicine
195
Disability

• Disability refers to a reduced ability to perform
  tasks one would normally do at a given stage of
  life and that may result in or discrimination.
• Estimated 49.7 million people in the U.S. have
  one or more physical or mental disabilities.
• Less than 15 of persons with a disability are
  born with it.
• Accidents, disease, and war account for most
  disabilities in this country.

196
of U.S. Population With Disabilities
197
Americans with Disabilities Act

• Protection from employment discrimination

198
Disabilities and Employment Status
199
Chapter 15

• Population and urbanization

200
Changes in Population

• Changes occur as a result of three processes
• Fertility (births)
• Mortality (deaths)
• Migration

201
Demographic Transition Theory

• Stage 1 Preindustrial Societies - little
  population growth, high birth rates offset by
  high death rates.
• Stage 2 Early Industrialization - significant
  population growth, birth rates are relatively
  high, death rates decline.
• Stage 3 Advanced Industrialization and
  Urbanization - very little population growth
  occurs, birth rates and death rates are low.
• Stage 4 Postindustrialization - birth rates
  decline as more women are employed and raising
  children becomes more costly.

202
Demographic Transition Theory
203
Growth in the Worlds Population
204
Population

• Worlds population of 6.5 billion in 2006 is
  increasing by more than 76 million people per
  year.
• Between 2000 and 2030, almost all of the worlds
  population growth will occur in low-income
  countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
• By 2025 more than 8 in 10 people will live in
  Africa, Asia or Latin America.

205
Almost all population growth over the next 20
years will occur in those nations least able to
afford this growth

• 97 percent of the projected world population
  increase of 1.3 billion people will occur in less
  developed nations

206
Cultural norms, change and desired family size

• Ghana 4.6 children per woman
• Traditional role of women
• Economic resource
• Old age insurance
• Europe 1.4 children per women
• Womens social status similar to that of men
• Government support (disability, health insurance,
  pensions)

207
Consequences for Europe include

• Difficulty funding pensions
• Need for immigrant labor
• Nationalistic fears and anti-immigrant violence

208
What about population growth in the U.S?

• Birth rates are around replacement level (low,
  but higher than those in Europe)
• Birth rates are higher in lower income groups.
  As with Europe, much of this difference is
  explained by the changing role of women in the
  middle and upper middle classes.
• Population continues to grow through immigration
• One result of this pattern of growth will be an
  increasingly diverse society (perhaps becoming a
  multi-lingual society

209
Population Pyramid

• A graphic representation of the distribution of a
  population by sex and age.

210
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211
Theories of Population Growth

• The Malthusian Perspective
• The Marxist Perspective
• Demographic Transition Theory

212
Malthusian Perspective

• If left unchecked, the population would exceed
  the available food supply.

213
Marxist Perspective

• Using technology, food can be produced for a
  growing population.
• Poverty is caused, not by overpopulation, but by
  expropriation of resources by the powerful
• Overpopulation will lead to the eventual
  destruction of capitalism.
• Workers will become dissatisfied and develop
  class-consciousness because of shared oppression.

214
The City

• As recently as 200 years ago, only 3 of the
  worlds population lived in cities. Today, that
  figure is 50 and is expected to grow to two
  thirds of the worlds people by 2050.

215
Three Models of the City
216
Georg Simmel's View of City Life

• Urban life is stimulating it shapes people's
  thoughts and actions.
• Many urban residents avoid emotional involvement
  with each other and try to ignore events taking
  place around them.
• Urban living can be liberating - people have
  opportunities for individualism and autonomy.

217
The diversity of the cityGans's Urban Villagers

• Cosmopolites are students, artists, writers,
  musicians, and professionals who live in the city
  to be close to its cultural facilities.
• Unmarried people and childless couples live in
  the city to be close to work and entertainment.
• Ethnic villagers live in ethnically segregated
  neighborhoods.
• The deprived are poor people with dim future
  prospects.
• The trapped are downwardly mobile persons, older
  persons, and addicts who cannot escape the city.

218
Suburbs

• Since World War II, the U.S. population has
  shifted as people moved to the suburbs.
• Suburbanites rely on urban centers for employment
  but pay property taxes to suburban governments
  and school districts.

219
Conflict Perspective on City Growth
220
Conflict Perspective on Global Growth
221
The Worlds Ten Largest Metropolises