The Design Argument for the Existence of God

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The Design Argument for the Existence of God

• Year 12

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Key Terms

• Telos from the Greek meaning end, aim,
  purpose.Analogy a comparison of
  similars.Natural Theology based on reason
  rather than special revelation (revealed truths
  from God).Anthropic Principle the reason and
  purpose of the universe is to support human
  life.Anthropomorphism speaking of non-human in
  human terms or as having human attributes.

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Is there evidence of Design in the world?

• Yes
• Wow Factors
• Grand Canyon
• Sunsets
• Waterfalls
• Great Barrier Reef
• Nature
• Life itself

• No
• Malfunctioning of the natural world.
• Tsunamis
• Earthquakes
• War
• Murder
• Disease and famine

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Teleological argument

• Telos form the Greek meaning End, Aim,
  Purpose.
• The Teleological (or design argument) claims that
  certain phenomena in the universe appear to
  display features of design, in so far as they are
  perfectly adapted to fulfil their function.

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• Such design could not have occurred by chance and
  can only be explained with reference to an
  intelligent, personal designer.

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Classical approaches to the argument

• Thomas Aquinas included a form of the
  teleological argument as the fifth of his five
  ways, which he termed From the Governance of the
  World
• We see that things which lack knowledge, such as
  natural bodies, act for an end, and this is
  evident from their acting always, or nearly
  always, in the same way, so as to obtain the best
  result. Hence it is plain that they achieve
  their end not fortuitously, but designedly. Now
  whatever lacks knowledge cannot move towards an
  end, unless it be directed by some being endowed
  with knowledge and intelligence and this being
  we call God. (Cited in Hick (ed.), 1964)
• Aquinas was arguing from design qua regularity
  (design in relation to the order and regularity
  in the universe). He regarded the overall order
  evident in the world as proof of a designer,
  this being we call God.

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• Nature points to the notion of order in that
  things seem to have an innate sense of purpose
  (design?). We know that nothing that has purpose
  does so without the aid of a 'guiding hand' (E.g.
  an archer shooting an arrow at a target) thus
  everything in nature is directed to its goal by
  God. Aquinas' Design Argument here is slightly
  different from the traditional view as presented,
  for example, by William Paley (see Paley's
  Watch). Aquinas agrees that there is order and
  purpose in the world but adds to this that
  inanimate objects (E.g. Planets), could not have
  ordered themselves, lacking the intelligence to
  do so, and so have been ordered by a Being with
  intelligence who could (which would be God). 
• Aquinas' key idea is that things such as planets
  are not 'endowed with knowledge and
  intelligence', and so cannot determine their own
  place in the universe. However, they also, as far
  as he is concerned, could not have become fixed
  in 'perfect' orbits by chance (for example, one
  where they do not crash into each other). So how
  did they get where they are today? Aquinas'
  answer is that they are where they are because
  they were set there by an intelligent Being 'and
  this being we call God'.

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William Paley and the watch

• William Paley (CE 1743 1805)), Put forward a
  very popular teleological argument in his book
  Natural Theology (1802).
• Key Term Analogy a comparison of similars.

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Paleys Analogy

• William Paley was Archdeacon of Carlisle
• Paley Imagine crossing a heath. If you come
  across a stone, you might consider it to be an
  accident but if you come across a watch then this
  provides clear evidence of contrivance or design
  even if the purpose of the watch is not obvious.
• Just as the design of the watch implies a
  designer, so the design in the world implies a
  great designer which is God.

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Summary

• A watch has certain complex features (e.g. it
  consists of parts, each of which has a function,
  and they work together for a specific purpose).
• Anything, which exhibits these features, must
  have been designed.
• Therefore the watch must have been designed.
• The universe is like the watch in that it
  possesses the same features, except on a far more
  wondrous scale.
• Therefore the universe, like the watch, has been
  designed, except by a wondrous universe maker
  i.e. God
• Paley goes on in his argument to show the
  intricacy of animals and humans, leading to the
  conclusion that God must be their maker. He
  famously used the example of the eye that appears
  to have design and clearly has a purpose.

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Richard Swinburne

• Richard Swinburne refers to his argument as a
  teleological argument from the temporal order of
  the world. That there is temporal order in the
  world is, says Swinburne, very evident.
• The orderliness of nature of which I draw
  attention here is its conformity to formula, to
  simple formulable, scientific laws. The
  orderliness of the universe in this respect is a
  very striking fact about it. The universe might
  so naturally have been chaotic, but it is not
  it is very orderly.

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• From all of this Swinburne concludes that some
  explanation is called for. And his suggestion is
  that the temporal order of the universe is
  explicable in terms of something analogous to
  human intelligence. In Swinburnes view there are
  only 2 types of explanation SCIENTIFIC
  explanation (in terms of scientific laws) and
  PERSONAL explanation (in terms of the free
  conscious choice of the person). According to
  Swinburne, there can be no scientific explanation
  of the universes temporal order since

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• In scientific explanation we explain particular
  phenomena as brought about by prior phenomena in
  accord with scientific laws or we explain the
  operation of scientific laws. From the very
  nature of science it cannot explain the highest
  level laws of all for they are that by which it
  explains all other phenomena.

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• As Swinburne sees it, therefore, if we are to
  account for the fact there are such laws then we
  have to appeal to a personal explanation.
  Someone (i.e. God) has brought it about that the
  universe exhibits a high degree of temporal
  order. And, so Swinburne adds, the likelihood of
  this supposition is increased by the fact that
  God has reason to produce an orderly world. For
  example, says Swinburne, order is a necessary
  condition of beauty, and it is good that the
  world is beautiful rather than ugly.

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The 10 Card Shuffling Machine.

• Imagine 10 card shuffling machines. A madman
  kidnaps someone and ties them to a chair. He sets
  the card shuffling machines going and says that a
  box of explosives will blow up unless every pack
  shows an ace of hearts.
• When the victim survives, he will be convinced
  that the dice must have been loaded but the
  madman will reply that he could not see anything
  else as he would otherwise be dead. Similarly
  the odds of human beings coming to be are so huge
  that the probability is that there is an
  intelligence behind the universe.

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Swinburnes conclusions

• It is very unlikely that the Universe has just
  happened to exist.
• Given the character of God postulated by the
  main monotheistic religions, this is just the
  sort of world God would have reason to create
• Whereas the Design argument does not prove
  the existence of God, it does make it more
  probable than not that God exists.
• HOWEVER assessing probability is very
  difficult and much depends on individual opinion
  so it is important to assess Swinburnes possible
  bias Peter Vardy also argues that he fails to
  take real account of the problem of evil and
  negative factors in the Universe.

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How successful is the Design Argument?

• In Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
  (1779), Hume emerged as a major opponent of the
  design argument. His main reasons for opposing
  the argument include the following
• Humans do not have sufficient knowledge and
  experience of the creation of the world to
  conclude that there is only one designer. Humans
  have only the experience of the things that they
  design and create. This limited experience is
  not enough to come to similar conclusions about
  the creation and design of the world.
• If the human experience of design was valid, the
  design argument would prove that the universe has
  a designer, but not that the designer was the God
  of Classical theism. The design could have been
  the work of several lesser Gods or,
  alternatively, of an apprentice god who has moved
  on to create bigger and better worlds
• This world, for all he knows, is very faulty and
  imperfect compared to a superior standard and
  was only the first rude essay of some infant
  deity who afterwards abandoned it.
• (David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural
  religion, 1779)

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• There is no evidence to support the benevolent
  God of Classical theism. The very existence of
  evil in the world would suggest a designer who is
  not benevolent or all-powerful God of Classical
  Theism.
• Hume argued that to try to discuss the design of
  the universe in human terms was not an acceptable
  analogy, because God transcends human
  understanding. If we are going to use an analogy
  of manufactured objects, then it is more usual
  for a machine to be designed and made by many
  hands. This analogy would suggest many gods
  rather than one God.
• Hume does not think that it is a good analogy to
  liken the universe to a vast machine. The
  universe is more like a vegetable or inert animal
  something that grows of its own accord, rather
  than something made by hand.

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The Epicurean Hypothesis

• The Epicurean Hypothesis argued that, at the time
  of creation, the universe consisted of particles
  in random motion. This initial state was
  chaotic, but gradually the natural forces evolved
  into an ordered system. The universe is eternal
  and, in this unlimited time, it was inevitable
  that a constantly ordered state would develop.
  The stability and the order is not a result of a
  divine designer but of random particles coming
  together through time to form the current stable
  universe.

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Immanuel Kant

• Kant emphasised that the design argument depended
  on the assumption that there is design in the
  universe. The design must be the independent
  work of a designer who imposed order on the
  universe. The argument is based on the
  assumption that there is regularity, order and
  purpose in the universe. Kant argued that the
  universe may be in chaos but because of the ways
  in which our minds organise our experiences, the
  world around us appears to be ordered. We impose
  the design on the world ourselves and cannot be
  certain of the reality of the situation.

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Conclusion

• Whether or not there is design in the universe
  comes down to probabilities. Hume accepted that
  it was more probable that the universe was
  designed and that there was a designer, but there
  was no proof that the designer was God.

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Exam Watch

• It is essential that you have knowledge and
  understanding of key terms. There are numerous
  contributors to the design argument, however,
  remember you are under exam conditions so stick
  to Paley, Aquinas, Swinburne and Hume. You can
  gain credit from demonstrating a clear and
  analytic understanding of the traditional
  presentations of the argument.

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Past Paper Questions

• Read the passage and answer questions (a) and (b)
  which follow.
• Suppose you are going for a walk and come across
  a watch. Paley argued that even if you hadnt
  seen a watch before, you would know that this
  watch did not come about by chance, but must be
  the result of the work of an intelligent mind
• Explain how Paley uses the watch analogy in his
  design argument for the existence of God. (10
  Marks)
• Outline three criticisms of Paleys design
  argument for the existence of God. (10 Marks)
• (a) Explain how the apparent order and purpose in
  the world is used to support the design argument
  for the existence of God. (15 Marks)
• (b) Explain how science challenges the design
  argument, and assess how far these challenges are
  successful. (25 Marks)
• Outline the key characteristics of the design
  argument. (15 Marks)
• Explain the challenges to the design argument and
  assess how successful they are. (25 Marks)