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Towards a more Sustainable Agriculture in
Andalucia, Spain ELIAS FERERES Institute for
Sustainable Agriculture-CSIC, and University of
Cordoba
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8.2 MILLION 87,000 km2 MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
Rainfall varies from 600 mm In the West to 200 mm
East
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One major feature FAST ECONOMIC GROWTH FROM
11,200 IN 2000, TO 18,200 IN 2007 STILL ONLY
75-80 OF SPAIN
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Nature protection is higher and higher in the
priority list of urbanites in Andalucia
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Land Use Trends Andalucía (1995-2005)
Rainfed (ha) Irrigated (ha) TOTAL 1995
3.341.728 761.346 (18,6) 4.103.074 2005
2.962.324 1.023.924 (25,7) 3.986.248
Increase in the irrigated area
In 2002
Irrigated
Rainfed
AREA
PRODUCTION
EMPLOYMENT
PERCENTAGE
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Large increases in enployment, even in the
agricultural sector
Total (x1000) Agricultura (x1000) Año 1995
1.731,30 201,90 (11,7 ) Año 2005 2.959,58
271,11 (9,2 )
Población activa
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AGRARIAN PRODUCTION VALUE
EXPORTS AROUND 30 SUBSIDIES AROUND 18 (2006)
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VERY HIGH DIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
VEGETABLES, OLIVE OIL AND FRUITS REPRESENT OVER
70
WHAT ARE THEN THE THREATS?
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Responsible Land and Water Use
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THE CHALLENGES
1. SOIL EROSION 2. WATER SCARCITY 3. ECONOMIC
VIABILITY
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1. CONSERVATION (SOIL) 2. INCREASED INPUT
PRODUCTIVITY (WATER) 3. RATIONAL USE 0F SUBSIDIES
(CAP-EU)
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Sustaining Agricultural Systems The Role of the
Common Agricultural Policy of the EU and its
Impact on Increasing the Sustainability of
Andalusian Agriculture
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• SLOW START (Amsterdam, 1997)
• CAP REFORM (2003/04)
• Partial de-coupling of Subsidies
• Environmental Measures Mandatory
• Good Agricultural Practices
• Minimum Rqmnts for
• Erosion control
• Organic matter
• Soil structure
• Natural Habitats
• Animals
• Other (N, groundwater, etc..)

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After 1.1.2005 Mandatory compliance with all
Environmental Directives (5) After 1.1.2006 Same
for Animal Health Directives (3) After 1.1.2007
Same for Animal Welfare Example Control of
Soil Erosion Policies (Andalusian) Contour
Tillage mandatory for Sgt10 (or 15 in
trees) Cover crops or minimum tillage recommended
(to be enforced beyond a certain slope) Terraces
maintenance works NON-COMPLIANCE PENALTIES 5
TO 20 of payments depending on level,
etc.. PROBLEM
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Andalucía CAP-EU SUBSIDIES (2005/06)
COTTON, FLAX
OLIVE
FIELD CROPS
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17 OF ANDALUCIAN LANDS ARE OLIVE
PLANTATIONS (Erosion is a major threat to the
sustainability of orchards on sloping lands)
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IMPROVING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF THE OLIVE
? 25 on slopes steeper than 20 59 on
slopes between 5 and 20
? 50 on soils with important limitation 17
on soils with moderate limitation
? 41 planted lt 100 tree ha-1
9.5 planted gt 400
tree ha-1
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Organic farming in Andalucía on the increase
Olive is no.1 crop (50,000 ha) total crops
around 150,000 ha rest Range, pastures and
dehesas (oaks pasturesanimals)
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How to deal with the problem
SOIL EROSION A MANUAL
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Quantitative Approach
RUSLE A R ? K ? L ? S ? C ? P
THE REVISED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION
(Renard et al., 1997)
A pérdida media anual de suelo (t ha-1 año-1)
Adaptado de Gómez et al. 2003. Soil Use
Management 19127-134.
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SIMPLIFICATIONS FOR OLIVE ORGANIC FARMING
RUSLE A R K L S C P
1- R K clima y suelo. No se usa
2- L S longitud y pendiente ladera. Calcula
en clases, Normalizado 10-1
3- C P Manejo. Calcula en clases, Normalizado
100-1 C PLU?CC?SC?SR?SM SR Rugosidad
(normalizado 10-1) SC Cobertura piedras,
restos CC Cob. vegetación, cubierta P
reducción por semiterrazas
Adaptado de Milgroom et al. 2007. Land
Degradation Development
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Simplificación manual
RUSLE A R K L S C P
4 - Amanual LS?SR?(SC-CC) - P Escala
1-1000
5- A vs Amanual
Erosion Risks
Amanual
Bajo Medio Alto
1-50 50-100 gt 100
Adaptado de Milgroom et al. 2007. Land
Degradation Development
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Descripción Manual
Ejemplo CC - SC
Paso 2
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Descripción Manual
Síntomas
Paso 3
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Descripción Manual
Combinación final
Paso 4
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HOW TO USE IT BY TECHNICIANS
Esquema general
Milgroom et al. 2007. Land Degradation
Development
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Managing a cover crop under rainfed conditions
A CRITICAL ISSUE
BUT COVER CROPS ARE BEING ADOPTED
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Where is the irrigation water going?
ANDALUCÍA
Total
826.943 ha
893.009 ha
CAP, Junta de Andalucía (2008)
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Rainfed yields low and unstable
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Water Productivity in Andalucia FIELD CROPS
................... 0.2- 0.4
/m3 HORTICULTURAL CROPS (OUTDOORS) ..
1- 2 /m3 OFF-SEASON VEGETABLES UNDER
PLASTIC................ 6- 20 /m3
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EVOLUTION OF GREENHOUSES IN ALMERÍA
1963 0,01 ha
IS THIS LEVEL SUSTAINABLE?
30.000
25.000
20.000
Greenhouse Surface Area in Almeria (ha)
15.000
10.000
5.000
0
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Year
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EFFICIENCY OF WATER USE IS OFTEN LIMITED BY
FACTORS OTHER THAN WATER,
RAINFED
IMPROVING MANAGEMENT AT ALL LEVELS IS MOST
CRITICAL
Sadras Angus
Gonzalez Mateos
IRRIGATED
IRRIGATED
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Options available
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Under Water scarcity, Reduce Water Consumption
(ET)
Therefore decrease
E and/or T
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DEFICIT IRRIGATION APPLICATIONS BELOW CROP
WATER REQUIREMENTS (ET) (Soil water deficits may
or may not cause crop water deficits and
reduction in ET) REGULATED DEFICIT IRRIGATION
(RDI) PLANNED CROP WATER DEFICITS AT SPECIFIC
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES. (Crop water stress occurs
at certain stages ET may or may not be reduced
significantly RISKS increased)
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Yield response function - OLIVE Córdoba,
1995-2000
R -16,8 62,810-3 ET 0,0410-3 ET2 r2
0,71
Olive production (t ha-1)
Water productivity (/m3)
Consumo de agua, ET (mm)
Evapotranspiration, ET (mm)
(Moriana, Orgaz, Pastor y Fereres, Jour. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci., 2003)
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YIELD RESPONSE OF OLIVES TO ET Curve cv. Picual
1995-2000 Points cv.Arbequina 2003-2006
RDI
SDI
RELATIVE YIELD (t/ha)
RELATIVE ETc (mm)
RDI
SDI
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Five-year peach experiment in Cordoba, where RDI
and SDI were compared to full irrigation in both
DI treatments, 66 of the full was applied
Soriano Fereres
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Sometimes RDI may not be the best strategy
Almond yields (kg/ha)
APPLIED WATER mm
Goldhamer et al., 2006
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RDI experiment in Pistachio in Madera Co.,
Calif., where ET was measured with different
methods, to assess the true water savings of RDI.
Iniesta et al., 2008
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WHAT ABOUT DEFICIT IRRIGATION IN ANNUAL CROPS?
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COTTON YIELD RESPONSE TO WATER IN SOUTHERN
SPAIN The yield-response function was generated
for wet (R), normal (N), and dry (D) years, using
a computer simulation model.
Garcia-Vila et al
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AquaCrop a simulation model of water-limited
crop production, currently being developed in FAO
by P. Steduto et al.,
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FARM INCOME AS A FUNCTION OF APPLIED WATER AND
WATER COSTS Cotton gross income in Southern Spain
under current CAP of the EU
Water costs
Yield threshold for EC subsidy (2600 kg/ha)
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IF THE WATER SUPPLY IS RESTRICTED, WHAT WOULD BE
THE OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF CROPS IN MY FARM?
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Spain, RDI strategy
Profits (/ha)
MODERATE RESTRICTIONS (60 of FI)
Water Allocation 3000m3/ha (1ac/ft)
Income (FI) (/ha) Maize 919.3 Cotton 813.0 Whe
at 520.1
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Agua consumida / Agua requerida
ASSESSING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE
Relative Irrigation Supply
(Lorite et al., Irrig.Sci., 2004)
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Satellite-based estimation of consumptive use
(ET) for planning and for performance
assessment. (SEBAL, METRIC, etc.,)
Large variations in Crop ET among farms
Lorite et al., 2007
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Limitations of satellite imagery Time interval
(every 14 days), problems with thermal sensors,
pixel size, etc..
Goal monitoring irrigation management
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What indicator of stress??
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Problems with point observations the spatial
variability
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THE Crop Water Stress Index, (CWSI) ALSO WORKS
ON TREES!
Testi et al., 2008
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