Trait Theories

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Chapter 5
Trait Theories
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Foundations of Trait Theory

• The view that criminals have physical or mental
  traits that make them different or abnormal
• William Sheldon suggested somatotype (body-build)
  makes people susceptible to delinquent behavior
• Mesomorphs muscular/athletic (aggression)
• Ectomorphs tall/thin (intellectual)
• Endomorphs heavy/slow (fences)

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Foundations of Trait Theory

• Impact of Sociobiology
• Sociobiology reemerged in the 1970s (Edmund O.
  Wilson)
• Sociobiologists view the gene as the ultimate
  unit of human destiny
• Ensuring of survival (reciprocal altruism)
• Modern Trait Theories
• Each offender is mentally and physically unique
• Humans do not posses equipotentiality (equal
  potential to learn and achieve)
• People develop physical or mental traits at birth
  or soon after that affect their social
  functioning over the life course and their
  behavior choices

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Biological Trait Theories

• Biosocial theorists argue physical,
  environmental, and social conditions work in
  concert to produce behavior
• Learning Potential and Its Effect on Individual
  Behavior Patterns
• The physical and social environment interact to
  either limit or enhance capacity for learning
• Biochemistry and cellular interaction control
  learning
• Instinct Some biosocial theorists contend
  learning is influenced by instinctual drives
  (rape or desire of males to control females)

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Figure 5.1 Biosocial Perspectives on Criminality
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Biological Trait Theories

• Biochemical Conditions and Crime
• Some trait theorists suggest biochemical factors
  contribute to criminality
• Chemical and Mineral Influences Over-or
  undersupply of certain chemicals and minerals are
  associated with antisocial behaviors
• Diet and Crime (depression, mania, cognitive
  problems, memory loss, or abnormal sexual
  behavior)
• Sugar and Crime Linked to violence/aggression
• Hypoglycemia blood glucose falls below necessary
  levels for normal brain functioning which has
  been linked to outbursts of antisocial behavior
  and violence.

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Biological Trait Theories

• Hormonal influences Some trait theorists suggest
  biochemical factors contribute to criminality
  (James Q. Wilson)
• Abnormal levels of male sex hormones (androgens)
  and testosterone have been linked to aggressive
  behavior
• High androgen levels increase stimulation and
  quest for thrills (left hemisphere of neocortex)
• Hormones may explain why males age-out of crime

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Biological Trait Theories

• Premenstrual Syndrome PMS linked to aggression
  in females
• Allergies Defined as unusual or excessive
  reactions by the body
• Cerebral allergies affect the nervous system and
  produce enzymes which affect behavior
• Neuroalergies affect the nervous system
• Environmental Contaminants Lead, copper,
  cadmium, mercury and inorganic gases
• Lead levels Linked to aggressive behavior
  (Deborah Denno)

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Biological Trait Theories

• Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime
• Neurophysiology is the study of brain activity
• Cases such as Charles Whitman (brain tumor) have
  focused attention on neurological impairments
• EEG abnormalities have been linked to violent
  criminals
• Minimal Brain Dysfunction (abnormality linked to
  cerebral structure) is manifested into episodic
  periods of explosive rage (PET scans)
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
  has been associated with poor school performance,
  bullying, and stubbornness
• Brain Chemistry neurotransmitters such as
  dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in low
  levels are linked to aggressive behavior

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Biological Trait Theories

• Arousal Theory
• Reaction of brain function in response to
  environmental stimuli
• Sensation seekers may include
  aggressive/violent behaviors
• Low heart beats rates related to seeking
  stimulation

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Biological Trait Theories

• Genetics and Crime
• Some trait theorists suggest personality traits
  may be genetically determined
• XYY theory in the 1970s believed to be associated
  with violent crime in males
• Parental Deviance children inherit criminal
  tendencies from their criminal parents
• Sibling Similarities The effect appears greatest
  among same sex siblings
• Twin Behavior identical twins (monozygotic)
  research suggests criminal tendencies are due to
  genes and not environment (findings are
  controversial)
• Adoption Studies research supports a genetic
  basis for criminality (Mednick)

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Biological Trait Theories

• Evolutionary Theory
• The competition for scarce resources has
  influenced and shaped the human species
• Impulsive risk-taking behavior becomes
  intergenerational (passed down from parents)
• Gender and Crime Most aggressive males have the
  greatest number of offspring and impact the gene
  pool
• Rushtons Theory of Race and Evolution Migration
  produced evolutionary changes in behavior (racist
  undertones)
• R/K Selection Theory Holds the R along a
  continuum reproduce rapidly compared to those
  along the K end who reproduce slowly
• Cheater Theory suggests a subpopulation of men
  has evolved with genes that leads to cunning
  methods to gain sexual conquests

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Biological Trait Theories

• Evaluation of the Biological Branch of Trait
  Theory
• Critics charge biological theories are racist and
  dysfunctional
• Do not explain population differences
• Biological explanations do not account for
  geographical variations in crime
• Lack of empirical testing

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Psychological Trait Theories

• Defective intelligence (Charles Goring) Crime
  could be controlled by regulating reproduction of
  the feebleminded
• Psychodynamic Freud suggested people carry the
  residue of childhood attachments that guide
  future interpersonal relationships
• Id (pleasure principal) unconscious biological
  urges for food, sex and other life-sustaining
  necessities
• Ego (reality principal) helps guide the actions
  of the Id within boundaries of social convention
• Superego (conscience) the moral aspect of ones
  personality
• Conflicts during psychosexual stages of
  development may lead to fixations

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Psychological Trait Theories

• Psychodynamics of Abnormal Behavior
• Inferiority complex (Adler) People with a drive
  for superiority
• Bipolar disorder Moods alternate between
  depression and elation
• Disruptive Behavior Disorder (DBD) includes
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Defiance
  toward authority figures
• Conduct Disorder (CD) More serious and viewed as
  severely anti-social

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Psychological Trait Theories

• Crime and Mental Illness
• Some personality disorders are referred to as
  psychosis
• Paranoid Schizophrenia Delusions of wrongdoing
  and persecution
• Despite evidence of mental illness Recidivism
  among mentally disordered is less than the
  general population
• Behavioral Theory
• Human actions are developed through learning
  experiences
• Social Learning Theory Social learning theorists
  argue that people learn aggression through life
  experiences
• Violence is learned via behavior modeling (family
  interaction, environmental experiences, and mass
  media)
• An event that heightens arousal (abuse)
• Aggressive skills (learned aggressive responses)
• Expected outcomes (aggression reward)
• Consistency of behavior with values (aggression
  is okay)

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Psychological Trait Theories

• Cognitive Theory
• Focuses on how people perceive and mentally
  represent the world around them and solve
  problems
• Sub-categories include
• Moral development (Jean Piaget) People obey the
  law to avoid punishment
• Humanistic psychology Self-awareness approach
• Information Processing How people process,
  store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate
  information

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Psychological Traits and Characteristics

• Personality and Crime
• Personality is the reasonably stable patterns of
  behavior, thoughts, and emotions that distinguish
  one person from another.
• Research has identified personality traits such
  as extroversion and introversion (Eysenck)
• Antisocial personality/psychopathy/sociopathy
  are antisocial persons suffering defects or
  aberrations
• Research on personality Minnesota Multiphasic
  Personality Inventory (MMPI) measures personality
  traits and may give clues to criminality.

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Psychological Traits and Characteristics

• Intelligence and Crime
• Some early trait theorists argued that criminals
  have a below average IQ
• Nature Theory (Goddard) argues that intelligence
  is determined genetically
• Nurture Theory argues that intelligence is
  primarily sociological
• IQ and criminality Reemerged in 1977 with
  research by Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang.
• Cross national studies Research with Danish
  children suggest a relationship between IQ and
  delinquency
• Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray suggest
  criminal offenders have an average IQ of 92
• Critics charge the link between IQ and
  criminality is weak

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Figure 5.2 Psychological Perspectives on
Criminality
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Public Policy Implications of Trait Theory

• Important influence on crime control and
  prevention programs
• Primary prevention programs seek to treat
  personal problems before they manifest into
  criminal behavior
• Secondary prevention programs provide treatment
  after one has violated the law
• Use of mood-altering chemicals such as lithium,
  pemoline, imipramine, phenytoin, benzodiazepines
  are sometimes used to control behavior