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Kongen Vender Tilbage Præsident George W. Bush
og magtbalancen i det amerikanske demokrati"
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Verdens mægtigste mand?Verdens mægtigste
embede?- dømt til at skuffe?
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De grundlæggende principper i USAs demokrati

• Separation of powers
• Checks and balances
• Federalism

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(No Transcript)
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Forskellige typer beføjelser

• Forfatningsmæssige beføjelser
• Underforståede beføjelser
• Beføjelser som præsidenter enten har tiltusket
  sig (op gennem amerikansk historie) eller har
  fået overdraget af Kongressen

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Præsidentens beføjelser

• Section 1 The executive Power shall be vested
  in a President of the United States of America
• Section. 2.
• Clause 1
• The President shall be Commander in Chief of the
  Army and Navy of the United States, and of the
  Militia of the several States, when called into
  the actual Service of the United States

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Kongressens beføjelser i forbindelse med krig

• Section 8 - Powers of Congress
• To define and punish Piracies and Felonies
  committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against
  the Law of Nations
• To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and
  Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on
  Land and Water
• To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation
  of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term
  than two Years
• To provide and maintain a Navy
• To make Rules for the Government and Regulation
  of the land and naval Forces
• To provide for calling forth the Militia to
  execute the Laws of the Union, suppress
  Insurrections and repel Invasions
• To provide for organizing, arming, and
  disciplining the Militia, and for governing such
  Part of them as may be employed in the Service of
  the United States, reserving to the States
  respectively, the Appointment of the Officers,
  and the Authority of training the Militia
  according to the discipline prescribed by
  Congress

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De to vigtigste kilder til fortolkning af
Forfatningen

• The Federalist Papers
• Tidligere højesteretsdomme

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To Visioner Jefferson v. Hamilton
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Rollemodellen George Washington
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Præsidentens funktioner

• Statsoverhoved
• Regeringsleder
• Øverstkommanderende for militæret
• Partileder
• Den frie verdens leder

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Fem Kriterier for præsidenters succes

• A) Omfanget af de problemer de har stået overfor
• B) Deres anstrengelser for at løse disse
  problemer
• C) Hvilke visioner de har haft for nationens
  udvikling
• D) Hvilke resultater de har været i stand til at
  opnå
• E) De langsigtede virkninger af deres handlinger?
  
• Hertil kommer selvfølgelig omfanget af
  magtmisbrug, korruption, ulovligheder og
  skandaler.

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Studiet af præsidenten som beslutningstager
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• Fem epoker i præsidentembedets udvikling
• Nationens fædre (1790-1828)
• Det traditionelle præsidentembede (1817-1933)
• Det kejserlige præsidentembede (1933-1974)
• Det postmoderne præsidentembede (1974-)
• Kongen vender tilbage (2001-)

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The Imperial Presidency

• Misbrug af emergency powers i den nationale
  sikkerheds navn
• the secrecy system herunder brug af CIA i
  hemmelige operationer
• En voldsom udvidelse af præsidentens beføjelser
  som øverstkommanderende for de væbnede styrker

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• when the president does it, that means that it
  is not illegal.
• Richard M. Nixon, 1977

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Sikkerhed eller demokrati?

• Perhaps it is a universal truth that the loss of
  liberty at home is to be charged to provisions
  against danger, real or pretended, from abroad.
• James Madison til Thomas Jefferson, 1798

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The Unitary Executive Theory Det kejserlige
præsidentembede på steroider
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Hvordan har Bush-regeringen styrket
præsidentembedets magt?

• Brug af prærogativer (executive privilege, etc.)
• Hemmeligholdelse (NSA-aflytninger,
  klasificeringer, m.m.)
• Udvidet brug af Commander in Chief-beføjelser
• Signing statements

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Det forfatningsmæssige argumentThe Unitary
Executive Theory

• Alexander Hamilton i Federalist 70
• THERE is an idea, which is not without its
  advocates, that a vigorous Executive is
  inconsistent with the genius of republican
  government. The enlightened well-wishers to this
  species of government must at least hope that the
  supposition is destitute of foundation since
  they can never admit its truth, without at the
  same time admitting the condemnation of their own
  principles. Energy in the Executive is a leading
  character in the definition of good government.
  It is essential to the protection of the
  community against foreign attacks it is not less
  essential to the steady administration of the
  laws to the protection of property against those
  irregular and high-handed combinations which
  sometimes interrupt the ordinary course of
  justice to the security of liberty against the
  enterprises and assaults of ambition, of faction,
  and of anarchy. Every man the least conversant in
  Roman story, knows how often that republic was
  obliged to take refuge in the absolute power of a
  single man, under the formidable title of
  Dictator, as well against the intrigues of
  ambitious individuals who aspired to the tyranny,
  and the seditions of whole classes of the
  community whose conduct threatened the existence
  of all government, as against the invasions of
  external enemies who menaced the conquest and
  destruction of Rome.
• There can be no need, however, to multiply
  arguments or examples on this head. A feeble
  Executive implies a feeble execution of the
  government. A feeble execution is but another
  phrase for a bad execution and a government ill
  executed, whatever it may be in theory, must be,
  in practice, a bad government.
• Taking it for granted, therefore, that all men of
  sense will agree in the necessity of an energetic
  Executive, it will only remain to inquire, what
  are the ingredients which constitute this energy?
  How far can they be combined with those other
  ingredients which constitute safety in the
  republican sense? And how far does this
  combination characterize the plan which has been
  reported by the convention?
• The ingredients which constitute energy in the
  Executive are, first, unity secondly, duration
  thirdly, an adequate provision for its support
  fourthly, competent powers.
• The ingredients which constitute safety in the
  republican sense are, first, a due dependence on
  the people, secondly, a due responsibility.

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Men her er Hamilton i Federalist 69

• The President is to be the commander-in-chief
  of the army and navy of the United States, and of
  the militia of the several States, when called
  into the actual service of the United States. He
  is to have power to grant reprieves and pardons
  for offenses against the United States, EXCEPT IN
  CASES OF IMPEACHMENT In most of these
  particulars, the power of the President will
  resemble equally that of the king of Great
  Britain and of the governor of New York. The most
  material points of difference are these First.
  The President will have only the occasional
  command of such part of the militia of the nation
  as by legislative provision may be called into
  the actual service of the Union. The king of
  Great Britain and the governor of New York have
  at all times the entire command of all the
  militia within their several jurisdictions. In
  this article, therefore, the power of the
  President would be inferior to that of either the
  monarch or the governor. Secondly. The President
  is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy
  of the United States. In this respect his
  authority would be nominally the same with that
  of the king of Great Britain, but in substance
  much inferior to it. It would amount to nothing
  more than the supreme command and direction of
  the military and naval forces, as first General
  and admiral of the Confederacy while that of the
  British king extends to the DECLARING of war and
  to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and
  armies, all which, by the Constitution under
  consideration, would appertain to the
  legislature.

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• Those who are to conduct a war cannot in the
  nature of things be proper or safe judges,
  whether a war ought to be commenced, continued,
  or concluded.
• James Madison

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• NO PENANCE WOULD EVER EXPIATE THE SIN AGAINST
  FREE GOVERNMENT OF HOLDING THAT A PRESIDENT CAN
  ESCAPE CONTROL OF EXECUTIVE POWERS BY LAW THROUGH
  ASSUMING HIS MILITARY ROLE.
• Højesteretsdommer Robert Jackson i YOUNGSTOWN
  SHEET TUBE CO. V. SAWYER (1952)

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Følger Bush blot Lincolns eksempel i krigen mod
terror?
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Hvordan adskiller Bush sig fra sine forgængeres
brug af prærogativer?

• Inherent powers
• unitary executive
• absolute power!

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Et eksempel

• Militære kommissioner for ulovlige fjendtlige
  kombattanter
• Præsidenten som lovgivende, udøvende og dømmende
  magt

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Magt fraværet af modstand Kongressens og
domstolenes medansvar
one of the striking facts of the modern
presidency is the extent to which it was built
through congressional initiative. James L.
Sundquist,
First of all, Im not going to let Congress
erode the power of the Executive Branch. I have a
duty to protect the Executive Branch from
legislative encroachment George W. Bush
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Efter Bush

• Vil det politiske system selv genoprette balancen?