Introduction to Joseph Butler

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Introduction to Joseph Butler

• Sermons, published in 1726.
• Had profound effect on moral philosophy in
  Britain, well into 20th century.

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2 major themes

• 1. Nature is the standard of good/bad,
  right/wrong.
• 2. The problem of the relation between self-love
  and love for others.

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Butler on Human Nature

• Human Nature comprises a constitutional system of
  drives, desires, instincts.
• Distinction between power and authority.
• Following nature is not a matter of following our
  strongest inclinations, but our highest (the
  inclinations with the greatest authority).

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Human Nature as a Constitution

• Mental principles, impulses form a harmonious
  system or constitution.
• The parts are mutually adjusted to each other,
  for the sake of a final end. (see footnote 1, p.
  42)

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Power vs. Authority

• Distinction between the power of an impulse and
  its authority
• The conscience (the power of rational reflection
  of moral judgment) has supreme authority in our
  mental constitution.
• It does not always have its way it can be
  usurped by more powerful rebels.

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• Like a diseased tree or a machine out of order
  the malfunctioning does not mean that the
  constitution is dissolved.
• Example rash action. Acting on an impulse not
  in ones best interest.
• The rash impulse usurps the authority of the
  superior impulse self-love.

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Why are we obliged to follow our conscience?

• It is the law of our own nature (p. 43).
• Notice Butler does not appeal to Gods commands
  and his power to enforce them. Gods will is
  incorporated into our nature, so that virtue is
  its own reward.

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Wouldn't we be better off without our conscience?

• Doesn't it interfere with our pursuit of
  happiness, and add unnecessary pain, in the form
  of guilt and shame?
• Compare losing your sense of pain. This would
  be a terrible loss, resulting in a shortened life
  span and much suffering.

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Coincidence of Conscience and Self-Love

• Butler argues that for the most part and in the
  long run, virtue and self-interest coincide in
  this life.
• Taking into account the afterlife, they coincide
  perfectly.

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The Possibility of the Love of Others

• Butler could be taken as arguing against two
  kinds of positions
• 1.The eudaemonistic theory of Aristotle and
  Aquinas must be false, because it entails that
  everyone is selfish (an obvious falsehood).
• 2. Everyone really is selfish (universal
  psychological egoism).

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Eudaemonism vs. Egoism

• Butler insists (as did Aristotle), that from the
  fact that everyone pursues his/her happiness as
  the sole ultimate end, it does not follow that
  everyone is selfish, incapable of genuine love of
  others.

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The Hedonistic argument for Universal Egoism

• 1. Everyone always acts (ultimately) for the sake
  of obtaining the greatest pleasure (and avoiding
  the most pain), and for no other reason.
• 2. Pleasure and pain are internal states of the
  self.
• 3. If one is concerned (ultimately) only about
  one's own internal states, then one is selfish.

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Hedonist argument, cont.

• 4. Therefore, everyone is always selfish.

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Butler rejects premise 1.

• He insists that we often seek the external
  objects of our desires and affections, not just
  the pleasure or satisfaction of fulfilling them.
• Hunger is a desire for food, not for the
  sensation of eating.
• Loneliness is the desire for companionship, and
  not just for the good feelings that result from
  companionship.

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Satisfaction vs. Satiation

• Suppose we had a form of chewing gum that gave us
  all the sensations of eating a wonderful meal,
  including the cessation of hunger, but provided
  no nutrition. Would the gum satisfy our hunger,
  or only mask its unsatisfaction?
• Consider again the Experience Box. Would this
  satisfy all our longings and desires, or only
  fool us into thinking they were satisfied?

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A Non-Hedonistic Argument for Universal Egoism

• 1. Everyone always acts (ultimately) for the sake
  of obtaining his/her own (objective) happiness,
  and for no other reason.
• 2. If one is concerned (ultimately) only about
  one's own happiness, then one is selfish.
• 3. Therefore, everyone is always selfish.

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Premise 1 is ambiguous, in a very subtle way.

• Happiness (here we are talking about happiness in
  this life, Aquinas's "imperfect happiness") is a
  large and complex thing, made up of many parts
• exercising wisdom in intellectual activities
• exercising virtue in civic activities
• engaging in artistic and athletic pursuits
• partaking of the bonds of true friendship

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To say that the desire for one's own happiness is
one's only ultimate end could be to mean one of
two things

• 1. Every action is taken with the single ultimate
  goal in mind of achieving one's own happiness
  (considered as a whole).
• 2. Every action is taken with some ultimate goal
  in mind that is included as one of the parts of
  one's happiness

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Meaning 1

• In the first case, one would have only own
  passion or affection -- the passion for one's own
  happiness. Every action would be calculated with
  this end in mind.
• Mr. Spock from Star Trek? He clearly had a
  passion, or he wouldn't have been so zealous in
  his duties. But he appeared (most of the time)
  to lack any particular affections.

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Meaning 2

• One has many particular affections, each passion
  being a passion either for the whole of happiness
  (the passion of "self-love") or for one of its
  parts.
• We humans cannot function without many particular
  passions.

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Butlers paradox

• Butler argues that if the passion for happiness
  as a whole (self-love) becomes too strong, it
  becomes counter-productive.
• We can be made miserable by an excessive desire
  for happiness!

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Love for others

• Love for other human beings is one of our
  particular affections.
• This love really is a desire for the good of that
  other person as an ultimate end.
• Our happiness includes the happiness of our loved
  ones. Their happiness is not merely a means to
  ours.

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Butler rejects premise 2 of the second argument

• 2. If one is concerned (ultimately) only about
  one's own happiness, then one is selfish.
• This is false, if ones own happiness includes
  the good of others, and if one is sometimes moved
  by the particular affection of love for those
  others.