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Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise

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Title: Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise


1
Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise
chapter 4
Biomechanicsof ResistanceExercise
Everett Harman, PhD, CSCS, NSCA-CPT
2
Chapter Objectives
  • Identify the major bones and muscles of the
    human body.
  • Differentiate among the types of levers of the
    musculoskeletal system.
  • Calculate linear and rotational work and power.
  • Describe the factors contributing to human
    strength and power.
  • Evaluate resistive force and power patterns of
    exercise devices.
  • (continued)

3
Chapter Objectives (continued)
  • Recommend ways to minimize injury risk during
    resistance training.
  • Analyze sport movements and design
    movement-oriented exercise prescriptions.

4
Section Outline
  • Musculoskeletal System
  • Skeleton
  • Skeletal Musculature
  • Levers of the Musculoskeletal System
  • Variations in Tendon Insertion
  • Anatomical Planes of the Human Body

5
Key Terms
  • anatomy The study of components that make up the
    musculoskeletal machine.
  • biomechanics The mechanisms through which these
    components interact to create movement.

6
Musculoskeletal System
  • Skeleton
  • Muscles function by pulling against bones that
    rotate about joints and transmit force through
    the skin to the environment.
  • The skeleton can be divided into the axial
    skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
  • Skeletal Musculature
  • A system of muscles enables the skeleton to move.
  • Origin proximal (toward the center of the body)
    attachment
  • Insertion distal (away from the center of the
    body) attach-ment

7
Human Skeletal Musculature
  • Figure 4.1 (next slide)
  • (a) Front view of adult male human skeletal
    musculature
  • (b) Rear view of adult male human skeletal
    musculature

8
Figure 4.1
9
Key Terms
  • agonist The muscle most directly involved in
    bringing about a movement also called the prime
    mover.
  • antagonist A muscle that can slow down or stop
    the movement.

10
Musculoskeletal System
  • Levers of the Musculoskeletal System
  • Many muscles in the body do not act through
    levers.
  • Body movements directly involved in sport and
    exercise primarily act through the bony levers of
    the skeleton.
  • A lever is a rigid or semirigid body that, when
    subjected to a force whose line of action does
    not pass through its pivot point, exerts force on
    any object impeding its tendency to rotate.

11
Key Term
  • first-class lever A lever for which the muscle
    force and resistive force act on opposite sides
    of the fulcrum.

12
Figure 4.3
13
Key Term
  • second-class lever A lever for which the muscle
    force and resistive force act on the same side of
    the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through
    a moment arm longer than that through which the
    resistive force acts. Due to its mechanical
    advantage, the required muscle force is smaller
    than the resistive force.

14
Figure 4.4
15
Key Term
  • third-class lever A lever for which the muscle
    force and resistive force act on the same side
    of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting
    through a moment arm shorter than that through
    which the resistive force acts. The mechanical
    advantage is thus less than 1.0, so the muscle
    force has to be greater than the resistive force
    to produce torque equal to that produced by the
    resistive force.

16
A Third-Class Lever (the Forearm)
  • Figure 4.5 (next slide)
  • The slide shows elbow flexion against resistance
    (e.g., a biceps curl exercise).
  • FM muscle force FR resistive force MM
    moment arm of the muscle force MR momentarm
    of the resistive force.
  • Because MM is much smaller than MR, FM must be
    much greater than FR.

17
Figure 4.5
18
The Patella and Mechanical Advantage
  • Figure 4.6 (next slide)
  • (a) The patella increases the mechanical
    advantage of the quadriceps muscle group by
    maintaining the quadriceps tendons distance from
    the knees axis of rotation.
  • (b) Absence of the patella allows the tendon to
    fall closer to the knees center of rotation,
    shortening the moment arm through which the
    muscle force acts and thereby reducing the
    muscles mechanical advantage.

19
Figure 4.6
Reprinted, by permission, from Gowitzke and
Milner, 1988.
20
Moment Arm and Mechanical Advantage
  • Figure 4.7 (next slide)
  • During elbow flexion with the biceps muscle, the
    perpendicular distance from the joint axis of
    rotation to the tendons line of action varies
    throughout the range of joint motion.
  • When the moment arm (M) is shorter, there is less
    mechanical advantage.

21
Figure 4.7
22
Moment Arm
  • Figure 4.8 (next slide)
  • As a weight is lifted, the moment arm (M) through
    which the weight acts, and thus the resistive
    torque, changes with the horizontal distance from
    the weight to the elbow.

23
Figure 4.8
24
Key Point
  • Most of the skeletal muscles operate at a
    considerable mechanical disadvantage. Thus,
    during sports and other physical activities,
    forces in the muscles and ten-dons are much
    higher than those exerted by the hands or feet on
    external objects or the ground.

25
Musculoskeletal System
  • Variations in Tendon Insertion
  • tendon insertion The points at which tendons are
    attached to bone.
  • Tendon insertion farther from the joint center
    results in the ability to lift heavier weights.
  • This arrangement results in a loss of maximum
    speed.
  • This arrangement reduces the muscles force
    capability during faster movements.

26
Tendon Insertion and Joint Angle
  • Figure 4.9 (next slide)
  • The slide shows changes in joint angle with equal
    increments of muscle shortening when the tendon
    is inserted (a) closer to and (b) farther from
    the joint center.
  • Configuration (b) has a larger moment arm and
    thus greater torque for a given muscle force, but
    less rotation per unit of muscle contraction and
    thus slower movement speed.

27
Figure 4.9
Reprinted, by permission, from Gowitzke and
Milner, 1988.
28
Musculoskeletal System
  • Anatomical Planes of the Human Body
  • The body is erect, the arms are down at the
    sides, and the palms face forward.
  • The sagittal plane slices the body into
    left-right sections.
  • The frontal plane slices the body into front-back
    sections.
  • The transverse plane slices the body into
    upper-lower sections.

29
Figure 4.10
30
Section Outline
  • Human Strength and Power
  • Basic Definitions
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Neural Control
  • Muscle Cross-Sectional Area
  • Arrangement of Muscle Fibers
  • Muscle Length
  • Joint Angle
  • Muscle Contraction Velocity
  • Joint Angular Velocity
  • Strength-to-Mass Ratio
  • Body Size

31
Human Strength and Power
  • Basic Definitions
  • strength The capacity to exert force at any
    given speed.
  • power The mathematical product of force and
    velocity at whatever speed.

32
Human Strength and Power
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Neural Control
  • Muscle force is greater when (a) more motor
    units are involved in a contraction, (b) the
    motor units are greater in size, or (c) the rate
    of firing is faster.
  • Muscle Cross-Sectional Area
  • The force a muscle can exert is related to its
    cross-sectional area rather than to its volume.
  • Arrangement of Muscle Fibers
  • Variation exists in the arrangement and alignment
    of sarcomeres in relation to the long axis of the
    muscle.

33
Human Strength and Power
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Muscle Length
  • At resting length actin and myosin filaments lie
    next to each other maximal number of potential
    cross-bridge sites are available the muscle can
    generate the greatest force.
  • When stretched a smaller proportion of the actin
    and myosin filaments lie next to each other
    fewer potential cross-bridge sites are available
    the muscle cannot generate as much force.
  • When contracted the actin filaments overlap the
    number of cross-bridge sites is reduced there is
    decreased force generation capability.

34
Muscle Length and Actin and Myosin Interaction
  • Figure 4.12 (next slide)
  • The slide shows the interaction between actin and
    myosin filaments when the muscle is at its
    resting length and when it is contracted or
    stretched.
  • Muscle force capability is greatest when the
    muscle is at its resting length because of
    increased opportunity for actin-myosin
    cross-bridges.

35
Figure 4.12
36
Human Strength and Power
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Joint Angle
  • Amount of torque depends on force versus muscle
    length, leverage, type of exercise, the body
    joint in question, the muscles used at that
    joint, and the speed of contraction.
  • Muscle Contraction Velocity
  • Nonlinear, but in general, the force capability
    of muscle declines as the velocity of contraction
    increases.
  • Joint Angular Velocity
  • There are three types of muscle action.

37
Key Term
  • concentric muscle action A muscle action in
    which the muscle shortens because the
    con-tractile force is greater than the resistive
    force. The forces generated within the muscle and
    acting to shorten it are greater than the
    external forces acting at its tendons to stretch
    it.

38
Key Term
  • eccentric muscle action A muscle action in which
    the muscle lengthens because the contractile
    force is less than the resistive force. The
    forces generated within the muscle and acting to
    shorten it are less than the external forces
    acting at its tendons to stretch it.

39
Key Term
  • isometric muscle action A muscle action in which
    the muscle length does not change because the
    contractile force is equal to the resistive
    force. The forces generated within the muscle and
    acting to shorten it are equal to the external
    forces acting at its tendons to stretch it.

40
Human Strength and Power
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Strength-to-Mass Ratio
  • In sprinting and jumping, the ratio directly
    reflects an athletes ability to accelerate his
    or her body.
  • In sports involving weight classification, the
    ratio helps determine when strength is highest
    relative to that of other athletes in the weight
    class.

41
Human Strength and Power
  • Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
  • Body Size
  • As body size increases, body mass increases more
    rapidly than does muscle strength.
  • Given constant body proportions, the smaller
    athlete has a higher strength-to-mass ratio than
    does the larger athlete.

42
Section Outline
  • Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
  • Gravity
  • Applications to Resistance Training
  • Weight-Stack Machines
  • Inertia
  • Friction
  • Fluid Resistance
  • Elasticity
  • Negative Work and Power

43
Sources of Resistanceto Muscle Contraction
  • Gravity
  • Applications to Resistance Training
  • When the weight is horizontally closer to the
    joint, it exerts less resistive torque.
  • When the weight is horizontally farther from a
    joint, it exerts more resistive torque.
  • Weight-Stack Machines
  • Gravity is the source of resistance, but machines
    provide increased control over the direction and
    pattern of resistance.

44
Cam-Based Weight-Stack Machines
  • Figure 4.14 (next slide)
  • In cam-based weight-stack machines, the moment
    arm (M) of the weight stack (horizontal distance
    from the chain to the cam pivot point) varies
    during the exercise movement.
  • When the cam is rotated in the direction shown
    from position 1 to position 2, the moment arm of
    the weights, and thus the resistive torque,
    increases.

45
Figure 4.14
46
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
  • Inertia
  • When a weight is held in a static position or
    whenit is moved at a constant velocity, it
    exerts constant resistance only in the downward
    direction.
  • However, upward or lateral acceleration of the
    weight requires additional force.
  • Friction
  • Friction is the resistive force encountered when
    one attempts to move an object while it is
    pressed against another object.

47
Sources of Resistanceto Muscle Contraction
  • Fluid Resistance
  • Fluid resistance is the resistive force
    encountered by an object moving through a fluid
    (liquid or gas), or by a fluid moving past or
    around an object or through an orifice.
  • Elasticity
  • The more an elastic component is stretched, the
    greater the resistance.
  • Negative Work and Power
  • Negative work refers to work performed on, rather
    than by, a muscle.
  • The rate at which the repetitions are performed
    determines the power output.

48
Section Outline
  • Joint Biomechanics Concerns in Resistance
    Training
  • Back
  • Back Injury
  • Intra-Abdominal Pressure and Lifting Belts
  • Shoulders
  • Knees

49
Joint BiomechanicsConcerns in Resistance
Training
  • Back
  • Back Injury
  • The lower back is particularly vulnerable.
  • Resistance training exercises should generally be
    performed with the lower back in a moderately
    arched position.
  • Intra-Abdominal Pressure and Lifting Belts
  • The fluid ball aids in supporting the vertebral
    column during resistance training.
  • Weightlifting belts are probably effective in
    improving safety. Follow conservative
    recommendations.

50
Figure 4.15
51
Key Term
  • Valsalva maneuver The glottis is closed, thus
    keeping air from escaping the lungs, and the
    muscles of the abdomen and rib cage contract,
    creating rigid compartments of liquid in the
    lower torso and air in the upper torso.

52
Joint BiomechanicsConcerns in Resistance
Training
  • Shoulders
  • The shoulder is prone to injury during weight
    training because of its structure and the forces
    to which it is subjected.
  • Warm up with relatively light weights.
  • Follow a program that exercises the shoulders in
    a balanced way.
  • Exercise at a controlled speed.
  • Knees
  • The knee is prone to injury because of its
    location between two long levers.
  • Minimize the use of wraps.

53
Joint BiomechanicsConcerns in Resistance
Training
  • How Can Athletes Reduce the Risk of Resistance
    Training Injuries?
  • Perform one or more warm-up sets with relatively
    light weights, particularly for exercises that
    involve extensive use of the shoulder or knee.
  • Perform basic exercises through a full ROM.
  • Use relatively light weights when introducing new
    exercises or resuming training after a layoff of
    two or more weeks.
  • Do not ignore pain in or around the
    joints. (continued)

54
Joint Biomechanics Concerns in Resistance
Training
  • How Can Athletes Reduce the Risk of Resistance
    Training Injuries? (continued)
  • Never attempt lifting maximal loads without
    proper preparation, which includes technique
    instruction in the exercise movement and practice
    with lighter weights.
  • Performing several variations of an exercise
    results in more complete muscle development and
    joint stability.
  • Take care when incorporating plyometric drills
    into a training program.

55
Section Outline
  • Movement Analysis and Exercise Prescription

56
Major Body Movements
  • Figure 4.16 (next two slides)
  • Planes of movement are relative to the body in
    the anatomical position unless otherwise stated.
  • Common exercises that provide resistance to the
    movements and related sport activities are listed.

57
Figure 4.16
Reprinted, by permission, from Harman, Johnson,
and Frykman, 1992.
58
Figure 4.16 (continued)
Reprinted, by permission, from Harman, Johnson,
and Frykman, 1992.
59
Key Point
  • Specificity is a major consideration when one is
    designing an exercise program to improve
    performance in a particular sport activity. The
    sport movement must be analyzed qualitatively or
    quantitatively to determine the specific joint
    movements that contribute to the whole-body
    movement. Exercises that use similar joint
    movements are then emphasized in the resistance
    training program.
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