Sentence Problems

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PUNCTUATION PART 2
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COMMAS
The comma provides clarity by grouping together
parts of sentences. Because it is the most
frequently used punctuation mark, many rules
govern its use. Commas

• MUST be used in some cases
• MUST NOT be used in others
• MAY be used in yet others

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COMMAS
with coordinating conjunctions . . .
Commas are used with coordinating conjunctions to
connect two independent clauses. The comma
signals the end of one clause and the beginning
of another.
and but for or
nor so yet
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COMMAS
with coordinating conjunctions . . .
The pattern is
independent clause
comma
coordinating conjunction
independent clause
I wanted to fly home for Christmas
,
I couldnt afford to.
but
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COMMAS
with coordinating conjunctions . . .
When both independent clauses are quite short,
the comma is sometimes omitted.
It was late and I was tired.
It was late, and I was tired.
It is always correct, however, to include the
comma, and you avoid the risk of error if you
include it.
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COMMAS
with coordinating conjunctions . . .
If the independent clauses contain commas, you
can join the clauses with a semi-colon in place
of the comma.
Dan, exhausted and sore, is still sleeping but
Mary, who has had more opportunity to rest, is
awake now.
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COMMAS
after an introductory phrase, clause, or word(s)
. . .
The comma signals the end of the introduction and
the beginning of the independent clause.
The pattern is
introductory clause, phrase, or word(s)
comma
independent clause
Because its so cold Starting today As adults
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COMMAS
to separate coordinate adjectives . . .
Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives
which modify a noun equally.

• Can the order of the words be reversed without
  changing the meaning or creating nonsense?
• Can the word and be inserted between them?

TWO TESTS FOR COORDINATE ADJECTIVES
If the answer to these questions is yes, then the
adjectives are coordinate and require a comma.
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COMMAS
to separate coordinate adjectives . . .
Which of these adjectives are coordinate?
The dusty old car The third brick house The final
preliminary draft The shimmering white light
û
û
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COMMAS
to separate coordinate adjectives . . .
Do not use a comma if the words are separated by
a coordinating conjunction
his long and boring story
Do not place a comma between the final adjective
and its noun
an exciting, eventful day
Do not place a comma between adjectives that are
not coordinate
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COMMAS
with tag questions . . .
Tag questions consist of a helping verb (a form
of is or has), a pronoun, and often the word
not, usually contracted. Tag questions are set
off by commas.
Your brother is in Costa Rica, isnt he? These
punctuation rules are exciting, arent they?
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COMMAS
with direct address . . .
Words which indicate the person or group being
spoken to are set off by commas.
Join with me, friends, to help fight hunger.
Eliza, hurry up or well be late.
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COMMAS
with items in a series . . .
A series is a group of elementswords, phrases,
or clausesthat match in grammatical form and
importance in the same sentence.
cold, tired, and hungry out the door, across the
street, and over the bridge He called out, he
shouted, but no one answered.
Place a comma between each of the items in the
series.
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COMMAS
with items in a series . . .
When the items as listed include commas or other
punctuation, or if the items are long and
complex, you may separate them with a semi-colon
instead of a comma.
The winners were Josh, the mail clerk Tonya, the
receptionist and Gary, the office manager.
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COMMAS
with items in a series . . .
Some writers omit the comma that comes just
before the coordinating conjunction. It is best,
however, to INCLUDE the comma
1. For consistency. When a semi-colon is used
with items in a series, it can NEVER be
omitted. 2. When the comma is omitted, it makes
the last two items in the series look as though
they should be read as a unit.
teeth, hair, arms, feet and tongues
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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
Restrictive and non-restrictive elements both
function as modifiers. A slight difference in
ideas or wording can change a phrase or clause
from one type to the other. Distinguishing
between them requires careful attention.
You may want to refer to Troyka, section 24e, and
the Course Packet, pp. 97-98, on this topic.
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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
A RESTRICTIVE element

• limits the meaning of the words it modifies
• refines down a general category to a more limited
  one
• is essential to the definition of the noun
• functions as a noun in the sentence
• IS NEVER SET OFF BY COMMAS

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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
Some examples of restrictive elements
people who love to cook trees that can withstand
prolonged drought memories that last a lifetime
None of these constructions requires a comma.
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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
A NON-RESTRICTIVE element

• adds information, but is not necessary to
  identify the noun it describes
• provides additional, rather than essential,
  information
• functions in the sentence as an adjective
• IS ALWAYS SET OFF BY A PAIR OF COMMAS

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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
Craig and Sharlene, who love to cook, spend a lot
of time in the kitchen.
NON-RESTRICTIVE
Who love to cook does not limit the idea of
Craig and Sharlene, so it is not
restrictivecommas required.
People who love to cook spend a lot of time in
the kitchen.
RESTRICTIVE
Who love to cook limits the idea of people,
so it is restrictiveno commas allowed.
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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
Commas change your meaning!
TWO COMMON EXAMPLES
1) my cousin Elaine
vs. my cousin, Elaine,
Whats the difference?
The first is restrictive (no commas) it means
that you have more than one cousin, and youre
identifying which one you mean
The second is non-restrictive (commas were used)
it means that your one and only cousin IS Elaine
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COMMAS
with non-restrictive elements
Commas change your meaning!
TWO COMMON EXAMPLES
2) C. S. Lewiss book Till We Have Faces
vs. C. S. Lewiss book, Till We Have Faces,
The first is restrictive (no commas) it means
that he has written more than one book, and
youre identifying which one you mean
The second is non-restrictive (commas were used)
it means that hes only written one book, and
youre telling us what its called (additional,
non-essential information)
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COMMAS
with contrasts
Expressions of contrast describe something by
stating what it is not. Such expressions are set
off by commas.
People who stay fit exercise consistently, not
only when they feel like it. My roommate, but not
my cousin, is a native Albertan.
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COMMAS
with transitional phrases
Use a comma to set off transitional phrases and
conjunctive adverbs.
As a matter of fact, Howard just started working
there. He is not, however, very excited about his
working conditions.
Transitional phrasessee Troyka, p.
87 Conjunctive adverbssee Troyka, p. 176
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COMMAS
with parenthetical expressions
Parenthetical expressions are asidesmaterial
that interrupts the flow of the sentence. Set
them off with commas.
The world of professional sports, or so it seems,
has been rocked by scandal lately. My brother, by
the way, is probably standing outside the door,
listening to us.
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COMMAS
with quotations
Use commas to separate quotations from the words
that introduce or explain them, unless the word
that directly precedes the quotation is that.
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COMMAS
with quotations
COMMA PATTERNS WITH QUOTATIONS
1. Explanatory words, Quoted words. 2. Quoted
words, explanatory words. 3. Quoted words,
explanatory words, quoted words.
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COMMAS
with quotations
Explanatory words, Quoted words.
She announced, The guests are now arriving.
Quoted words, explanatory words.
The guests are now arriving, she announced.
Quoted words, explanatory words, quoted words.
The guests, she announced, are now arriving.
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COMMAS
with quotations
BUT . . .
She announced that The guests are now arriving.
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COMMAS Misuse
Do not use a comma unless you have a good reason
to use it.
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COMMAS Misuse
Here are some common comma placement errors. DO
NOT USE A COMMA . . .

• To separate a subject from its verb

• To separate a verb from its object

• To separate a verb from its complement

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COMMAS Misuse

• To separate a preposition from its object

• with such as or like

• before than

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COMMAS Misuse

• before parenthesis

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THE SEMI-COLON
Use a semi-colon between two independent clauses
that are closely related in meaning. Using a
period signals a stronger break between the ideas.
The mountain stood like an imposing monolith it
had daunted many a climber.
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THE SEMI-COLON
When connecting independent clauses, the second
of which begins with a conjunctive adverb or
transitional expression, ALWAYS use a semi-colon.
Suddenly, the clouds parted at last, I could see
my goal before me.
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THE COLON
Use a colon to introduce material that follows
Remember these things eat well, exercise, and
get plenty of rest. Lewis was famous for the hat
he wore a ten-gallon Stetson. Her advice was
invariable Be home by 1000.
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THE COLON
IMPORTANT NOTE
YOU CAN USE A COLON ONLY WHEN IT FOLLOWS AN
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
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THE COLON
DO NOT USE A COLON . . .
BETWEEN A VERB AND ITS OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT
The menu includes pizza, soup, salad . . .
BETWEEN A PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT
He was equipped with two sleds, a knife . . .
AFTER SUCH AS, INCLUDING, OR FOR EXAMPLE
There are many options, for example