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Title: Media


1
Media Audiences Theories about the Role of the
Media in everyday life.
  • Chapter 10. Pages 253-289

2
Preview of slides
  • Overview
  • Uses Gratification Theory
  • Reception Studies
  • Information Processing Theory
  • Information Processing Model

3
  • OVERVIEW
  • 1970s 1980s researchers in US became
    increasingly interested on media audience. Their
    attempt was to gain more useful information about
    audience. As more studies were carried out the
    Audience Centered Theories were also developed.

4
Active Audience Theory or (Audience Centered
Theory)
  • This theory focus on assessing on what people
    do with media. It does not focus on what the
    media do to the people. This theory is
    micro-level in its approach.
  • The argument for such theories were quite
    convincing. E.g. why were advertisers spend
    billion of dollars to purchase advertising time
    if the messages on the media has no effect on
    the audience ? Why were the TV network audience
    still growing?

5
A. Uses Gratification Theory
  • Herzog (1944) was the first to create the theory
    of Uses Gratification. He identify 3 types of
    gratifications
  • 1. Gratification as a means of emotional release
  • 2. Gratification as opportunities of wishful
    thinking
  • 3. Gratification as the advice obtained from
    listening to daytime radio programme.

6
  • Schramm (1954) continued to offer the
    gratification theory by describing how individual
    make media and content choices based on
    expectation of reward and effort required.
  • Schramm argued that our decision to select the
    content materials based on our expectations of
    having some need met, even if the decision is not
    to make a choice.

7
The revival of Uses Gratification thinking
  • The scenario
  • By 1970 the limited effects paradigm had
    demonstrated study after study media role was
    found to marginal in comparison the effect it
    had with other social factors.
  • But the question that trouble researchers mind
    were that how could this be true when media
    audiences were on the increase people spend so
    much time consuming media? Why were advertisers
    spend billion of dollars to purchase advertising
    time if their message had no effect?

8
  • Why were the network television audiences
    continue to grow? Didn't any of the media use
    have important consequences for the people who
    were engaged in it? Why didnt research found
    these reasoning?

9
  • Therefore the first revival interest among
    researchers looking into the Uses
    Gratifications perspectives can be traced into
    three development areas such as
  • A. 1. New survey research into methods
    data analysis techniques to allow new
    studies to be developed.
  • 2. The increasing in awareness that peoples
    are active in using the media.
  • 3. Although some researchers found that
    there were some positive uses of the
    media but these findings were often ignored.

10
  • The second revival was because of the
  • rapid diffusion of Internet World Wide Web
    (www) led to the intensity use of the media
    aggressively (interactively).
  • In other words researchers began to examine the
    issues of
  • (a) Interactivity i.e. the degree to which
    participants in the communication process have
    control over, can change roles in their mutual
    discourse (Williams, Rice Rogers, 1988)

11
  • (b) Demassification i.r. the ability of media
    audience to select from a wide range of media
    the characteristics that allow individuals to
    tailor messages to their needs (e.g. internet)
    Rugeriero, 2000.
  • .

12
  • (c) Asynchroneity (mediated messages) i.e.
    senders receivers of electronic messages can
    read mail at different times still interact
    conveniently

13
  • In other words uses gratification theory proved
    to useful in explaining how why the new media
    are use to supplement in some cases replace
    older media.

14
  • Blumler (1979) claimed that one of the major
    problem in using the uses gratification theory
    is the ability this theory capable of explaining
    a wide range of meaning on the concept of
    activity. He identified several meanings for this
    term as follows
  • (1) Utility i.e. media have uses for people
    people can put media to those uses.
  • (2) Intentionality i.e. that consumption of
    media content can be directed by peoples
    motivations.

15
  • (3) Selectivity i.e. People use of the media
    might reflect their existing interests
    preferences.
  • (4) Imperviousness to influence i.e. audience
    will certainly try to avoid certain types of
    media.

16
  • What the uses gratification theory does is to
    provide a framework for understanding when how
    different media consumers, involvement in the
    media.
  • Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch (1974) described five
    elements in the uses gratifications model

17
  • 1. The media is active its media use is goal
    oriented.
  • 2. The initiative link to the need gratification
    to the media choice rests with the audience
    member.
  • 3. The media compete with other sources for
    need satisfaction.
  • 4. Audience are self aware of their own media
    use, interest motivates to be able to provide
    with an accurate picture of that use.
  • 5. Value judgments linking to the need of
    specific media content should be suspended.
    That means people can use the same content in
    vary different ways therefore the same
    content should have very different
    consequences.

18
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  • With above conclusions the researches raised
    other questions, such as
  • What factors effecting the level of activeness of
    media use among audience? What other factors in
    the environment (social situations) influence
    audience needs of which media use?

20
  • Katz, Blumler Gurevitch (1974) explained that
    the social situations involving media related
    needs as follows
  • 1. Social situation can produced tensions
    conflicts, leading to pressure to utilize or
    consumed certain selected media.
  • 2. Social situations can create an awareness of
    problems that demand attention thus, to fulfill
    this demand, information could be obtained form
    the media.
  • 3. Social situations can deprive your real life
    opportunity to satisfy these needs, and media
    can substitute this need instead.

21
  • 4. Social situations can transmit certain
    specific value which also can be obtained
    from certain media.
  • 5. Social situation can provide anticipated
    familiarity with the media which must be met in
    order to fulfilled the aspirations of the
    social group norms.

22
Uses Gratifications
  • STRENGTH
  • Focus attention of individuals in the mass
    communication process.
  • Respect intellect ability of media consumers.
  • Provides insightful analysis of how people
    experience media contents.
  • Differentiate active use of the media from more
    passive uses.
  • Studies of the use of media as part of our
    everyday social interaction.
  • Provides useful insight into adoption of new
    media,

23
  • WEAKNESSES
  • Alliance on functional analysis can create
    status quo orientation
  • Cannot easily addressed the present or absent of
    media effects.
  • Measurement of key concepts is criticized. It is
    too micro-level orientation.

24
B. Reception Studies or Reception Analysis
  • This is an audience centered theory that focuses
    on how various types of audience members make
    sense of media contents.
  • 1. Critical theorists view that the producer
    intended meaning of the piece of content the
    assumption was to reinforced the status quo
    also known as preferred reading.

25
  • 2. or audience provide an alternative
    interpretation which is known as the negotiated
    reading.
  • 3. or It is also possible that the audience
    made an interpretation is directly opposite to
    the preferred reading which is also known as
    the oppositional decoding.

26
  • STRENGTHS
  • Focus attention on individuals.
  • Respect intellectual ability of audience.
  • Acknowledge range of meanings.
  • Seek in-depth understanding of how people
    interpret media content.
  • Can provide an insightful analysis the way media
    are used in everyday social contect.

27
  • WEAKNESS
  • Based on subjective interpretation of audience
    report.
  • Cannot address the presence or absence of
    effects.
  • Qualitative research methods preclude causal
    explanation.
  • Too micro level in its orientation.

28
C. Frame Analysis
  • This analysis deals with the idea about how
    people use expectations to make sense of everyday
    life.
  • In other words the expectations we get from the
    media are based from
  • (a) Previous experience (through media or
    personal).
  • (b) Pudience can be quite resistant to change
    despite of having all the factual information.

29
  • (c) Audience can associated with
    emotions such as hate, fear, love.
  • (d) It is difficult to control despite of
    having all the factual information

30
  • Goffman (1974) theory of Frame analysis provides
    us with a systematic account of how we use our
    expectations to make sense of our everyday life
    situations.
  • Goffman was convinced that the daily life is much
    more complicated than it appears.
  • He argued that we often change the way we define
    the situations as people moves through space
    time. In other words our experience of the world
    constantly shifting, sometimes in major ways
    other times not.

31
  • We always monitor the social environment for
    social cues that signal when are to make the
    change.
  • Goffman therefore used the term frame to refer to
    a specific set of expectations that are used to
    make sense of a social situation at a given point
    of time.

32
  • But when we are ready to move from one set of
    frames to another we then said to applied the
    downshift or upshift. We are expected to change
    frames depending the seriousness of the case.

33
  • That is we move back forth between serious
    less serious sets of expectations.
  • It is just like an animal cubs acquiring skill of
    catching frogs butterfly and as the cubs grows
    maturity these skills are transfer to a more
    serious situations to kill when the animal grows
    up in order to survive. These skills were learned
    at the early stage.

34
  • According to Goffman daily life involves
    countless shifts in frames these shifts are
    negotiated by using social cues. Some social cues
    are very conventional while others are subtle.
    E.g. couples usually develop a very complex set
    of cues when to uplift or downshift in their
    interaction.

35
  • In gender ads for example Goffman argued that
    advertising that uses the sex appeal of women to
    attract attention of men indirectly teaches us
    how social cues were learned that could have a
    serious consequences e.g. stereotyping of women
    etc.
  • We learned more than just product presentation.
    We learned vast arrays of other social cues
    thus reinforcing the formation of dominant
    public culture.

36
  • What we are experiencing here according to Goffmn
    what is known as primary or dominant reality.
    That is in the real world people will obey
    certain conventional accepted rules.

37
  • In this theory Goffmans focuses on how
    individual learn to routinely trying to make
    sense of their social world that we lived in.
  • Goffman provides us with an interesting way that
    we are all attracted of how the media can
    reinforced the dominant public culture. E.g. ads
    did not creates sex-role stereotyping but
    homogenizing how women are publicly depicted.

38
  • Powerful visual imagery is used to associates
    products with women. Ads both teaches reinforce
    these cues.
  • According to Goffman we firmly committed
    ourselves to live in what we experience as part
    of the frame known as the dominant reality
    that is a real world in which people events
    obey certain conventional accepted rules.

39
  • Thus, according to Goffman we are all prisoners
    of our own reality whatever it might be. And if
    do make mistake with framing the reality the
    result would be devastating.

40
  • Frame analysis theory as developed by Goffman is
    a microscopic theory. It creates conceptual
    framing theory that focuses how individual learn
    to make sense of their social world through
  • the use of the concepts of (a) framing (b) what
    can they learned from the media.

41
C. Information Processing Theory.
  • This theory discusses the use of mechanistic
    analogies to describe interpret how people deal
    with the flood of information that we they
    receive every day.
  • This theory describes individuals as complex
    computers with certain build in information
    capabilities. It can received, recognize, filter,
    make sense, store retrieve information.

42
  • According to the information processing theory we
    can never be conscious of more than very small
    fraction of the information present in our
    environment

43
  • One advantage of the information processing
    perspective is that it provides more objective in
    learning.
  • We blame ourselves if we fail to learn something
    that we think we should have learned. We assumed
    that a little more conscious effort learning
    would have made the difference. But would that a
    little more efforts would have made much
    difference? Or could that be possible that could
    led you to breakdown?

44
  • In this case what you need is revamping of your
    routine information handling skills strategies
    that is a transformation of your information
    processing system.
  • Information processing theory provides us with a
    means of developing a more objective assessment
    of the mistakes we make when processing
    information. These mistakes are routine outcomes
    from a particular cognitive process not
    personal errors caused by personal failings.

45
  • By the end of this lesson you have learned the
    following topics as follows
  • A. Uses Gratification Theory
  • B. Reception Studies
  • C. Information Processing Theory
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