Haddad Telework

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UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE SCHOOL OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING AND GEOSCIENCES TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
RESEARCH GROUP (TORG) TRANSPORT SEMINAR PROGRAMME
2007-2008 30th April 2008
I Can Handle the Beast at Speed
Understanding the Attitudes and Motivations of
Risky Drivers
Dr Charles Musselwhite Senior Lecturer in
Traffic and Transport Psychology Centre for
Transport Society, University of the West of
England, Bristol Charles.Musselwhite_at_uwe.ac.uk
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(No Transcript)
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Overview

• Why do we love our cars?
• Motivations for car use
• We all love traffic jams
• Gender differences
• Categorising risk
• Risky drivers and interventions
• Driving as Impression Management
• Conclusion

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Why do we love our cars?
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The need to use a car
After Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007
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Practical Needs

• Travel Time
• Subjective impression of travel time
• Change of mode time
• Ability to juggle many trips
• Physical Exertion and effort
• Change of mode effort
• Carrying luggage, bags etc.
• Perceived safety
• Comfort
• Crowding
• Weather

• Get from A to B
• Work, shops, services, social events
• Convenience
• Deconstruct the term
• Financial Costs
• Direct out of pocket tolls, parking fees,
  petrol, public transport fees.
• Indirect insurance, road tax, cost of vehicle,
  depreciation, maintenance, repairs.

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Social Needs

• Freedom
• Potential Travel (Metz, 2000)
• The freedom of the open road
• Go anywhere when and where you want
• We all want the freedom weve been sold
• myth or reality?
• Perception of control (Langer Rodin, 1976)
• Escaping from freedom (Erich Fromm, 1941)

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Social Needs

• Independence
• Doing it yourself
• Personal Space and Psychological Detachment
• Unwanted arousal (Stradling)
• Social-less travel
• I can do what I want when I want, I can light-up
  a fag, sit back and listen to the radio on what
  channel I want to. Nobody shouts into a mobile
  phone, its relaxing
• Proving independence

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Social Needs

• Being Normal
• Active (the need to be ordinary) vs. passive
  (societies impact)
• Institutional Carism
• Embedded in the culture of society
• Ordinariness of the car
• It is the one thing that allows me to compete
  with youngsters. It is something I can probably
  still do as well as when I was a young man. I
  feel able to be part of society
• Shows you are normal

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Social Needs

• Social Identity
• Expression, showing status and roles (Steg et
  al., 2001)
• Social Identity
• Impression Management Using mode transport to
  impression manage
• How cool is the car, the train, the bus? What
  does it say about the user?
• Stereotypes / labelling theory

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Aesthetic Needs

• Driving itself as a pleasure
• Interact socially about the journey
• Story-telling
• Excitement
• View nature - Biophilia (Kellert and Wilson,
  1993)
• Sense of achievement for safe completion
• Test skills

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Providing for these needs

• Interventions aimed at changing peoples needs
  are based on practical solutions to practical
  needs. Have we missed something?
• Weve also misunderstood what consumer goods
  actually mean to people, ignoring their
  connections with personal identity, esteem and
  belonging. Nowhere have we got things more wrong
  than in understanding car use. Pleas for people
  to cut car use in favour of public transport are
  on their own more or less a waste of time because
  they miss the fundamental point. Cars are much
  more than a means of getting from A to B. Indeed
  if that were all they were good for, these
  expensive items wouldnt be needed at all in
  many, if not most, peoples lives. The car is
  less about transport and more about a sense of
  freedom, perceived convenience and personal
  identity.
• (Hounsham, 2006, pg.8)

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Primary Needs
Bus station improvements Accessibility Safety Info
rmation
New vehicles Comfort Accessibility Safety
Information
See http//www.tfl.gov.uk/buses/ini_intro.asp
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Secondary and Tertiary Needs
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Do we like being in a jam!?
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Negative Affect of congestion

• Practical level
• Late for work, appointments, lost business, lost
  time with family
• Emotional level
• Stress, frustration, anger

Its just like proper road rage. I could just
ram everyone out the way.
It is very tiring in the morning, and by the
time you get to work, you are snappy, and cant
be bothered.
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Negative Affect of Congestion

• People have different tolerance thresholds
  expected congestion is often acceptable.
  Thresholds based on
• Experience What should happen
• Intrinsic Personality, attitudes
• Extrinsic Needing to be somewhere, having
  children in the car etc.
• Usually made worse if unexpected congestion is
  encountered
• Feeling that congestion is getting worse
• And unpredictable congestion is getting worse
• Now has become a socially acceptable excuse at
  work!

People are more tolerant I would say, if you say
I am late because I was stuck in traffic and like
10 years ago itd be like you what?
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Tolerating congestion

• Congestion is almost always preferred to demand
  management!
• Natural and organic vs. artificial and distant
• Dunkirk spirit all in it together and we will
  battle through it
• Is congestion a psychological need?!
• Neanderthal Man - Tough and hard beaten through
  congestion to get to work/home a sense of
  achievement
• Source of story telling, discussion and boasting
• Protected space and time free from role
  responsibility
• Social yet distance amongst others you dont
  have to touch, smell or talk to. The need to be
  part of a crowd
• Protected bubble free to sing, smoke, shout!
• Normality and habit Ordinariness of being in a
  jam!
• What would we do without it!?

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Tolerating Congestion
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Reducing negative affect

• Change route
• Change time
• Change mode?
• Personalise space
• Set up home
• Decorate
• Own space

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Male and female differences and love of the car
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Male and female relationships with the car

• Safety and driving
• Extension of themselves
• Emotional aspects of the car
• Implications
• Planning for the car will override planning for
  other transport and movement requirements

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Safety, driving and gender

• male drivers are particularly more likely than
  female drivers
• to speed (Baxter et al., 1990 Evans and
  Wasielewiski, 1982, 1983 Smeed, 1972
  Wasielewiski, 1984),
• to drive with shorter headway (Evans and
  Wasielewiski, 1982 Wasielewiski, 1984)
• to deliberately take more risks when driving
  (French, et al., 1993 Reason et al., 1990 Rolls
  et al., 1991 Storie, 1977 and West et al., 1992
  1993). This is particularly true for the younger
  male driver.

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Safety, driving and gender

• Female drivers are more likely than male drivers
  to
• Display slips and lapses while driving (Reason et
  al., 1990)
• Be negatively influenced by being late
  (Musselwhite 2004 a,b)
• Be negatively influenced by emotions (except
  anger and aggression) (Musselwhite, 2004a,b)
• Drive safely in areas with traffic calming
  (Musselwhite, 2004a,b)
• Show more empathy for non vehicle road users
  (Musselwhite, 2007)

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The car as an extension of the self
Men love cars 'because they're part of them' By
Ben QuinnLast Updated 213am BST 13/07/2007

• Men talk about their cars as if talking about
  themselves," said one of its authors, Iain
  MacRury, of the University of East London.
• "Women are more comfortable expressing their
  feelings directly and see the car as separate.
  That's why women give cars names."
• His co-author, Peter Marsh, added that the
  attachment of men to their cars was often
  translated into feelings of annoyance at the
  threat, or potential threat, of someone damaging
  the vehicles.
• They were also likely to indulge in the type of
  shows of affection towards cars that one usually
  associates with loved ones or pets, such as
  patting the roof or dashboard.

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The car as an extension of the self

• Men 'love cars more than partners'
• 24 September 2007
• One third of British men spend more cash on their
  car than on their loved one, a new survey
  reveals.According to fish4cars, one in three
  men spends a staggering 20,000 on spoilers,
  alloys and car accessories during their lifetime,
  but when it comes to their partners it is a
  struggle for them to open their wallets, buying
  their partners a present just once per month.

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• Male drivers 'more likely to remember their first
  car than their first kiss
• By TOM KELLY
• Last updated at 2303pm on 24th February 2008
• Many young men will readily admit that they
  bought their first car to impress the opposite
  sex.
• But it seems most end up with fonder memories of
  the motor than the girl.
• A survey reveals that the majority of Britons
  remember their first car more readily than their
  first kiss.

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Emotion, gender and driving

• Males compared to females are
• More attached to their car (Rolls and Ingham,
  1992)
• Less willing to give-up driving when they have to
  (Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007)
• Feel the car enables them to show off their
  skills (Rolls and Ingham, 1992)
• Feel the car defines who they are as a person
  (Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007)
• Feel the car shows off their status (Rolls and
  Ingham, 1992 Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007)

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Emotion, gender and driving

• Females compared to males are
• More likely to see the car in terms of a
  practical vessel (Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007)
• Relate driving to parental roles and
  responsibility (Musselwhite and Haddad, 2007)
• More open towards the concept of demand
  management especially road pricing (Owen,
  Sweeting, Clegg, Musselwhite and Lyons, 2008)

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Implications

• c.50 UK population female
• 13 architects female ( total number of
  architects 30,000 )
• 25 of planning profession female
• Involvement not enough. There is a need to
  understand womens diversity and consider the
  different needs of different groups of women etc.
  (Hillier, 2000).
• Too often women loose their gender awareness
  when they enter the planning office at the start
  of the working day. They are taught (in education
  and practice) that planning is neutral and too
  often blindly accept this and continue to plan in
  what is effectively a male stream manner
  (Hillier, 2000).

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Implications

• The dominance of planning for the car has
  resulted in an imbalance for the street to
  provide for the needs and requirements of other
  users
• Over emphasis on a male dominated discourse has
  resulted in speed and efficiency, especially the
  car, being planned for rather than multi-faceted,
  mixed function streets

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Categorising Risk Taking
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Driver Behaviour and Attitudes towards
Engineering Speed Countermeasures

• Aims
• To critically examine the role of individual
  differences, in terms of background
  characteristics and perceptions, on engineering
  and technological speed management strategies and
  their subsequent effect on driving behaviour.
• Methodology
• Mixed Methodology. Grounded Theory Approach
  Qualitative Interviews followed by Quantitative
  Survey Phase

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Driver Behaviour and Attitudes towards
Engineering Speed Countermeasures

• Limitations of previous research
• Driver community seen as homogenous group
• Interventions are technologically led
• Interventions are punishment focussed
• Attitudes of drivers are often ignored
• One or two objective measures used
• Messages to Drivers are Unclear, Ambiguous,
  Inconsistent and Difficult to Interpret

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Driver Behaviour and Attitudes towards
Engineering Speed Countermeasures

• 57 interviews with drivers
• Clusters of similar risk driving behaviours
  performed.

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Driver Behaviour and Attitudes towards
Engineering Speed Countermeasures
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From Qualitative Analysis to Quantitative Analysis

• Quantitative Analysis of Data took place to
  address 2 main concerns
• To see if patterns reported in the qualitative
  analysis were repeated
• in a larger more representative sample
• using rigorous statistical techniques
• To see whether each of the groupings of driver
  affected their attitudes and behaviour with
  interventions

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Quantitative Quantities

• Questions about driving behaviour were developed
  from the qualitative analysis and given to
  individuals at service stations and garages
  across the country.
• 1,655 questionnaires were able to be analysed
• Comparing background data of sample to population
  statistics, the sample was fairly representative.

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Quantitative Analysis

• Using a hierarchical cluster analysis (see Lorr,
  1983), 4 main groups of driver were found, based
  on motivation to take risks
• Calculated Risk Takers - 22.7 of respondents
• Unintentional Risk Takers - 36.9 of respondents
• Continuous Risk Takers - 13.7 of respondents
• Reactive Risk Takers - 22.1 of respondents
• NOTE could not compute 4.7 of respondents into
  one of the dominating categories

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Calculated Risk Takers

• Take risks when they feel it is safe to do so
• Younger than unintentional risk takers, but older
  than continuous risk takers. Similar in age to
  reactive risk takers.
• More likely to be male
• Most likely to use car almost exclusively for
  work and drive high miles

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Unintentional Risk Takers

• Largest group of drivers
• Rarely, if ever take risks, when driving,
  certainly not intentionally
• Tend to be older drivers
• Slightly more likely to be female

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Continuous Risk Takers

• Smallest group of drivers
• Continually take a variety of high risks while
  driving
• Tend to be younger drivers
• 90 of group are male
• Mainly drive for social reasons and for pleasure

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Reactive Risk Takers

• Take a risk in reaction to internal/external
  stimuli, such as being late, feeling stressed,
  getting lost and feeling tired etc.
• Similar in age to calculated risk takers
• More likely to be female
• High number use car for domestic purposes
• Average number of miles driven

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Perceived Intervention Effects
Driver Behaviour and Attitudes towards
Engineering Speed Countermeasures
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Impression management and driving behaviour
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Being risky is normal and essential

• Risk taking traditionally believed to be linked
  to Thantos or a death wish!
• But
• Being risky is normal
• Socially acceptable channelling
• AND
• Being risky is linked to survival
• Survival of the fittest
• Sexually attractive

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Driving behaviour as an expression

• Driving behaviour shows something about the self
• Different person behind the wheel?
• Deindividuation vs. Identity
• Loss of identity in group situation vs.
  deliberate attempt to manipulate impression to
  others

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Driving habit

• Non-deliberate ways of driving
• On auto-pilot
• Locked into good and bad habits
• React?

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Biological consequences of risk

• In a risky situation the body changes in order to
  prepare to deal with the risk
• Heart begins to beat wildly (up to three times
  faster),
• Blood pressure increases,
• Mouth becomes dry
• Surge of adrenalin, noradrenalin, growth hormone
  and cortisol
• Breathing rate increases
• Blood races around body and drains away from
  unimportant areas like your stomach into your
  muscles, and giving you butterflies.
• Pupils dilate allowing better perception of
  movement and ability to see into the shadows and
  darkness (which may conceal further threat).
• Immune system gears up to deal with any potential
  injuries,
• Emergency reserves of glucose are released in
  order to prepare for intense busts of muscular
  activity

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Driving norms

• Driven by the need to appear normal
• Personal norm
• What is expected of someone like me?
• Group identity
• Societal norm
• Implicit in modern society Do everything as
  quickly and efficiently as possible
• Moral norm
• What is the right behaviour in this situation?

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Driving as Impression Management

• Driven by the need to present oneself in a
  certain light
• Deliberate attempt to manipulate others
  impression of oneself through the type of driving
  displayed
• Passenger effects
• Same sex, same age
• Older people
• Family, mum and dad
• Observation
• How fast would you go in the following scenes?

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Young drivers scenario experiment

• Experimental set-up
• How many hazards can you detect?
• How fast would you go?
• Other behaviour?
• Braking
• Overtaking
• Results will be collected in and some will be
  used in the analysis by
• Researcher
• Police
• Other people your age peer group
• Your mum
• Your dad

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Younger male drivers (17-20 years)
Researcher Control No of hazards av 3.2 Speed
av 38mph Braking 75
Friends No of hazards av 2.3 Speed av 50
mph Braking 25
Police No of hazards av 5 Speed av 30
mph Braking 92
Younger female drivers (17-20 years)
Researcher Control No of hazards av 2.9 Speed
av 36mph Braking 77
Friends No of hazards av 2.6 Speed av 43
mph Braking 50
Police No of hazards av 3.5 Speed av 25
mph Braking 98
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Sig difference for peer influence higher speed
(than all other groups) Higher hazards spotted
correctly in police and dad settings (than other
groups)
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Sig difference for peer influence higher speed
(than all other groups) Sig lower speed in police
setting (than all other groups except dad!)
Higher hazards spotted correctly in police and
dad settings (than other groups)
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Anyone
Peers
Police
Mum
Dad
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Findings

• Key findings
• On average - higher speeds and more risks taken
  by young drivers in peer observed category.
• On average - lower speeds and less risks taken by
  young drivers in police observed category.
• Ordinary driving category sees average speeds and
  average risks.
• Males more pronounced high and low speed and
  risks than females
• Differences amongst drivers
• Some drive in ordinary condition same as they
  would if being observed by peers strongly driven
  by need to impress others (38 male 20 female)
• Some stable across all conditions strong moral
  obligation (15 male, 18 female)
• Unusual outliers? scary dads, sensible view
  of peers

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Findings

• Key findings
• We do use driving style differently to impress
  others
• Some drivers do this more than others
• Especially male drivers
• Some drivers remain more constant
• Especially female drivers
• Next stages
• Older drivers
• Different conditions
• Frustration
• Annoyance
• Being late time penalties etc.
• Other driving behaviours
• Real world observation
• Effect of experience

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Conclusion
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Conclusion

• Cars are more than a means of getting from A to B
• They are used to express psychological and
  affective aspects of the self
• Queuing in traffic jams can be seen positively
• Males have a more emotive relationship with their
  car and this had traditionally led to the
  over-provision for the vehicle in society

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Conclusion (2)

• Driving is another form of expressing the self
• Behaving riskily (or not) can be deliberately
  manipulated to impress others
• People have different approach to risk
• Different acceptance/thresholds
• Different affect on external/internal pressures
• Interventions aimed at the average driver may be
  ineffective amongst those who need to have the
  most intervention!