EE 447 VLSI Design Lecture 5: Wires

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EE 447 VLSI DesignLecture 5 Wires
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Outline

• Introduction
• Wire Resistance
• Wire Capacitance
• Wire RC Delay
• Crosstalk
• Wire Engineering
• Repeaters

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Introduction

• Chips are mostly made of wires called
  interconnect
• In stick diagram, wires set size
• Transistors are little things under the wires
• Many layers of wires
• Wires are as important as transistors
• Speed
• Power
• Noise
• Alternating layers run orthogonally

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Wire Geometry

• Pitch w s
• Aspect ratio AR t/w
• Old processes had AR ltlt 1
• Modern processes have AR ? 2
• Pack in many skinny wires

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Layer Stack

• AMI 0.6 mm process has 3 metal layers
• Modern processes use 6-10 metal layers
• Example
• Intel 180 nm process
• M1 thin, narrow (lt 3l)
• High density cells
• M2-M4 thicker
• For longer wires
• M5-M6 thickest
• For VDD, GND, clk

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Wire Resistance

• r resistivity (Wm)

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Wire Resistance

• r resistivity (Wm)

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Wire Resistance

• r resistivity (Wm)
• R? sheet resistance (W/?)
• ? is a dimensionless unit(!)
• Count number of squares
• R R? ( of squares)

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Choice of Metals

• Until 180 nm generation, most wires were aluminum
• Modern processes often use copper
• Cu atoms diffuse into silicon and damage FETs
• Must be surrounded by a diffusion barrier

Metal Bulk resistivity (mWcm)
Silver (Ag) 1.6
Copper (Cu) 1.7
Gold (Au) 2.2
Aluminum (Al) 2.8
Tungsten (W) 5.3
Molybdenum (Mo) 5.3
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Sheet Resistance

• Typical sheet resistances in 180 nm process

Layer Sheet Resistance (W/?)
Diffusion (silicided) 3-10
Diffusion (no silicide) 50-200
Polysilicon (silicided) 3-10
Polysilicon (no silicide) 50-400
Metal1 0.08
Metal2 0.05
Metal3 0.05
Metal4 0.03
Metal5 0.02
Metal6 0.02
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Contacts Resistance

• Contacts and vias also have 2-20 W
• Use many contacts for lower R
• Many small contacts for current crowding around
  periphery

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Wire Capacitance

• Wire has capacitance per unit length
• To neighbors
• To layers above and below
• Ctotal Ctop Cbot 2Cadj

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Capacitance Trends

• Parallel plate equation C eA/d
• Wires are not parallel plates, but obey trends
• Increasing area (W, t) increases capacitance
• Increasing distance (s, h) decreases capacitance
• Dielectric constant
• e ke0
• e0 8.85 x 10-14 F/cm
• k 3.9 for SiO2
• Processes are starting to use low-k dielectrics
• k ? 3 (or less) as dielectrics use air pockets

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M2 Capacitance Data

• Typical wires have 0.2 fF/mm
• Compare to 2 fF/mm for gate capacitance

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Diffusion Polysilicon

• Diffusion capacitance is very high (about 2
  fF/mm)
• Comparable to gate capacitance
• Diffusion also has high resistance
• Avoid using diffusion runners for wires!
• Polysilicon has lower C but high R
• Use for transistor gates
• Occasionally for very short wires between gates

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Lumped Element Models

• Wires are a distributed system
• Approximate with lumped element models
• 3-segment p-model is accurate to 3 in simulation
• L-model needs 100 segments for same accuracy!
• Use single segment p-model for Elmore delay

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Example

• Metal2 wire in 180 nm process
• 5 mm long
• 0.32 mm wide
• Construct a 3-segment p-model
• R?
• Cpermicron

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Example

• Metal2 wire in 180 nm process
• 5 mm long
• 0.32 mm wide
• Construct a 3-segment p-model
• R? 0.05 W/? gt R 781 W
• Cpermicron 0.2 fF/mm gt C 1 pF

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Wire RC Delay

• Estimate the delay of a 10x inverter driving a 2x
  inverter at the end of the 5mm wire from the
  previous example.
• R 2.5 kWmm for gates
• Unit inverter 0.36 mm nMOS, 0.72 mm pMOS
• tpd

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Wire RC Delay

• Estimate the delay of a 10x inverter driving a 2x
  inverter at the end of the 5mm wire from the
  previous example.
• R 2.5 kWmm for gates
• Unit inverter 0.36 mm nMOS, 0.72 mm pMOS
• tpd 1.1 ns

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Crosstalk

• A capacitor does not like to change its voltage
  instantaneously.
• A wire has high capacitance to its neighbor.
• When the neighbor switches from 1-gt 0 or 0-gt1,
  the wire tends to switch too.
• Called capacitive coupling or crosstalk.
• Crosstalk effects
• Noise on nonswitching wires
• Increased delay on switching wires

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Crosstalk Delay

• Assume layers above and below on average are
  quiet
• Second terminal of capacitor can be ignored
• Model as Cgnd Ctop Cbot
• Effective Cadj depends on behavior of neighbors
• Miller effect

B DV Ceff(A) MCF
Constant
Switching with A
Switching opposite A
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Crosstalk Delay

• Assume layers above and below on average are
  quiet
• Second terminal of capacitor can be ignored
• Model as Cgnd Ctop Cbot
• Effective Cadj depends on behavior of neighbors
• Miller effect

B DV Ceff(A) MCF
Constant VDD Cgnd Cadj 1
Switching with A 0 Cgnd 0
Switching opposite A 2VDD Cgnd 2 Cadj 2
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Crosstalk Noise

• Crosstalk causes noise on nonswitching wires
• If victim is floating
• model as capacitive voltage divider

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Driven Victims

• Usually victim is driven by a gate that fights
  noise
• Noise depends on relative resistances
• Victim driver is in linear region, agg. in
  saturation
• If sizes are same, Raggressor 2-4 x Rvictim

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Coupling Waveforms

• Simulated coupling for Cadj Cvictim

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Noise Implications

• So what if we have noise?
• If the noise is less than the noise margin,
  nothing happens
• Static CMOS logic will eventually settle to
  correct output even if disturbed by large noise
  spikes
• But glitches cause extra delay
• Also cause extra power from false transitions
• Dynamic logic never recovers from glitches
• Memories and other sensitive circuits also can
  produce the wrong answer

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Wire Engineering

• Goal achieve delay, area, power goals with
  acceptable noise
• Degrees of freedom

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Wire Engineering

• Goal achieve delay, area, power goals with
  acceptable noise
• Degrees of freedom
• Width
• Spacing

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Wire Engineering

• Goal achieve delay, area, power goals with
  acceptable noise
• Degrees of freedom
• Width
• Spacing
• Layer

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Wire Engineering

• Goal achieve delay, area, power goals with
  acceptable noise
• Degrees of freedom
• Width
• Spacing
• Layer
• Shielding

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Repeaters

• R and C are proportional to l
• RC delay is proportional to l2
• Unacceptably great for long wires

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Repeaters

• R and C are proportional to l
• RC delay is proportional to l2
• Unacceptably great for long wires
• Break long wires into N shorter segments
• Drive each one with an inverter or buffer

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Repeater Design

• How many repeaters should we use?
• How large should each one be?
• Equivalent Circuit
• Wire length l/N
• Wire Capaitance Cwl/N, Resistance Rwl/N
• Inverter width W (nMOS W, pMOS 2W)
• Gate Capacitance CW, Resistance R/W

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Repeater Design

• How many repeaters should we use?
• How large should each one be?
• Equivalent Circuit
• Wire length l
• Wire Capacitance Cwl, Resistance Rwl
• Inverter width W (nMOS W, pMOS 2W)
• Gate Capacitance CW, Resistance R/W

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Repeater Results

• Write equation for Elmore Delay
• Differentiate with respect to W and N
• Set equal to 0, solve

60-80 ps/mm in 180 nm process