How Verbs Change Your Meaning Throughout Your Research Paper

1
How Verbs Change Your Meaning Throughout Your
Research Paper

• Dr. Steve Wallace

2
Overview of Speech

• How to report facts, opinions, and implications
  by using the correct verbs and verb tenses.
• How to use tentative verbs to express a
  probability, possibility, or doubt.
• How to use verbs in 5 parts of the Introduction,
  in 2 parts of the Methods, in 4 parts of the
  results, and in 5 parts of the discussion.
• How to use the correct verb to show that you
  agree, disagree, or are neutral toward previous
  literature in your Introduction.
• How to indicate the strength or weakness of a
  previous study through your word use.
• How to avoid anthropomorphism in verb use.

3
Researchers are paper builders

• Research is our material
• Writing is the building process
• Grammar rules are the tools
• Like a building, our research may a have far
  reaching and long lasting impact
• As teachers, our impact expands beyond our work
  to the work of the next generation of scholars we
  teach apprenticeship

4
Teaching writing to students

• Teaching requires something concrete to keep
  students awake
• Familiarity, Proximity, Reality, and Activity
• Comparing to something concrete gives us a
  feeling of accomplishment

5
Blue collar writing habits

• Build in pieces
• Show up every day and follow a routine
• Do not wait to write
• The act of writing improves creativity
• Do not criticize your rough draft
• We write to make our bad ideas better
• The best way to get good ideas is to have lots
  of ideas. - Linus Pauling
• Pride in our work and sharing our skills with
  others

6
Tool box English
Building material research
Blue print article structure
Roof Discussion
Walls Results
Door Methods
Foundation Introduction
7
The editor and reviewers are building inspectors
for our paper

• Poor paper building (English) is used as a common
  reason for rejection and major revisions
• Rejection and major revisions take time
• Careless English suggests careless research
• Editors and reviewers do not have time to rebuild
  papers

8
Todays Talk

• We will discuss some fundamental tools that you
  need in scholarly writing
• We will skip details and exceptions to make this
  memorable, practical, and applicable with the
  greatest benefit
• Verbs
• Punctuation Hammer and Nails

9
Why Discuss Verb Tense?

• Verb tense is a fundamental tool that is used in
  every sentence like a saw
• Verb tense controls research impact and meaning
• Extremely high value area to focus our time
• Nine years explaining in class, writing lab, to
  editors, and to clients

10
Common tenses in academic writing (99 of tense
usage)

• Simple Present
• They discuss
• Present Perfect
• They have discussed
• Simple Past
• They discussed
• Past Perfect
• They had discussed
• Future
• They will discuss

11
Tenses not common in the research paper (1 - we
wont discuss today)

• Future Perfect
• They will have discussed
• Present hypothetical
• (go back to the past to discuss the present)
• If they discussed, they would know
• If they had discussed, they would have known
• Future prediction
• (go back to the present to discuss the future)
• If they discuss, they will know
• Subjunctive
• (go back to the present to discuss the future)
• If they were discussing, they would know
• If they had been discussing, they would have known

12
General Principles of Tense Use in Academic
Writing
13
When to Use the Present Tense
14
Use the present tense when stating or referring
to an established fact

• Fine motor skills require integrating muscular,
  skeletal, and neurological functions.
• The salt in most oceans is approximately 97
  sodium chloride (Ritchie, 1999).

15
Use the present tense when explaining the
essential details of conventional (unmodified)
materials

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally
  contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which
  serves as an electron source.
• Silicon is the core component of most
  semiconductor devices, and demonstrates
  electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.

16
Use the present tense for facts about a general
population

• The population density of Shanghai is
  approximately 2,657 people per square kilometer.
• Nearly 80 of Singaporeans are literate in
  English as either their first or second language.

17
Use the present tense to explain and describe
equations and variables

• This equation illustrates the expected behavior
  of the spin system as a function of time and
  initial conditions.
• Equation (3) shows how solitary waves are
  generated at the bump and run upstream.

18
Use the present tense to describe what your
figures and tables show

• The vital signs upon presentation are summarized
  in Table 1.
• Figure 1 shows the relationship between age and
  incidence of dementia.
• Exception
• X affected Y (Fig. 2).

19
Use the present tense when referring to your
paper overall

• The aim of this paper is to determine the
  principal mechanical parameters of thin film
  deposited on a circular glass substrate.

20
Introducing the tentative present tenseShows
approximation, probability, and doubtby using

• Modal auxiliaries
• Tentative words

21
Modal auxiliaries

• Will
• Would
• Should
• May
• Might
• Could

22
Examples of the tentative present tense using
modals

• Generalized results could substantially alter the
  course of research in this field.
• If applied as recommended herein, the proposed
  method would mitigate the uncertainties that have
  thus far hindered progress.

23
Examples of tentative words

• Adjectives apparent, consistent with, few, many,
  most, possible, presumed, probable, several,
  some, supposed
• Adverbs about, apparently, arguably, fairly,
  generally, largely, likely, more or less, mostly,
  often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably,
  quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually
• Nouns appearance, indication, inference,
  likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion,
  tendency, to our knowledge
• Verbs aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate,
  indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume,
  propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate,
  suggest, suppose, tend

24
Examples of the tentative present tense using
tentative words

• X appears to affect Y.
• X has a tendency to affect Y.
• This phenomenon indicates that X affects Y.

25
When to Use the Tentative Present Tense
26
Use the tentative present tense for the
implications of your findings

• This antigen seems to behave as an adhesion
  molecule in NK-target cell interaction.
• Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on the
  external surface of subgingival plaque.

27
Use the tentative present tense to express
uncertainty, approximation, and doubt

• Managerial accountants seem to be generally
  averse to outsourcing.
• Managerial accountants might be generally averse
  to outsourcing.

28
Use the tentative present tense when expressing
expected outcomes or offering future
recommendations

• This research may provide an alternative to the
  common field measurement of soil erosion and
  runoff.

29
How to Use the Past Tense
30
Use the past tense when describing the methods of
your study

• A questionnaire was administered to evaluate the
  current impact of nursing innovation in neonatal
  intensive care units.

31
Use the past tense when describing materials in
your study that you modified, altered, or changed

• A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was
  modified by adding large-field vector deflection
  to examine remote radioactive specimens.
• The silicon used in this study was an n-type
  silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots
  grown using the Czochralski method.

32
Use the past tense when reporting data obtained
through your research or your literature review

• According to a 2009 survey conducted by the
  Institute of Higher Education, Keio was the
  top-ranked private university in Tokyo the next
  highest were Juntendo, Waseda, and Nihon.
• One-third of Internet users in Europe were
  infected by malware in 2010.
• The students surveyed in this study were not a
  randomly selected population and may not,
  therefore, be representative of all students at
  NCTU.

33
Use the past tense to refer to the findings,
results, or suggestions of a single, previous
study

• Johnson Lin (2002) determined that calcium,
  zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice
  than in white rice.
• Taggert (2007) reported that in 85 of cases,
  the kidneys are affected by Wegners
  glomerulonephritis.
• Common verbs in the past tense investigated,
  studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined

34
When writing research-focused statements
(referring to your own study), use the past tense

• The purpose of this study was to determine
  whether or not a genetic correlation exists
  between performance levels at high and low
  temperatures.

35
When to Use the Present Perfect Tense
36
Use the present perfect tense when referring to
multiple previous studies

• Several researchers have studied the relationship
  between classroom lighting and standardized test
  performance (Jens, 2006 Kirby et al., 2008
  Milner, 2009).
• Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have
  investigated the economic performance and
  management quality of banks in Taiwan.
• Previous research on the superconductivity of
  degenerate materials has been rare.

37
How to Use the Future Tense
38
The future tense is rarely used in research
submitted for publication

• Commonly incorrectly used
• Possibly use for future work or projections
• Should be used in proposals
• Can be used in protocols and standard operating
  procedures
• Can be used in theses and dissertations

39
How to Apply Tenses Throughout the Research Paper
40
Overview of the tenses in the Introduction

• Stage one Motivation starting with current
  knowledge or previous studies - Present or
  Present perfect tense
• Stage two Literature review - Present, Present
  perfect, or Past tense
• Stage three Knowledge gap Present or Present
  perfect tense
• Stage four Problem statement Present or Past
  tense
• Stage five Rationale for study Tentative
  present tense

41
Introductions Stage one Present tense or
Present perfect

• Motor skills require action based on rapid
  change in the environment.
• Clean water is a basic human need.
• Previous studies have indicated the need for
  further research in X.

42
Introduction Stage two Literature Review

• Fact citation Present tense
• - In most deserts of the world, transitions
  between topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer,
  1993).
• Multiple study citation Present perfect tense
• - Several researchers have studied the
  relationship between classroom adjustment and
  mobility (Smith, et al. 2002 Johnson and
  Willard, 2003 Madsen, 2009).
• Single study citation-Past tense
• Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated
  equal time to all groups.

43
Tenses in single study citation Present, past,
or tentative present tense

• Johnson found that X affects Y.
• Johnson found that X affected Y.
• Johnson suggested that X may affect Y.

44
Introduction Stage three Knowledge gapPresent
or present perfect tense

• However, few studies have reported on the
  effects of computer assisted instruction.
• However, few studies have investigated the
  effects of antioxidant seeds on the endocrine
  system.
• No previous work on the relationship between X
  and Y currently exists in the literature.

45
Introduction Stage four Objective Past or
present tense

• The purpose of this study was to determine
  whether or not genetic differences exist at low
  temperatures in pepper species.
• The aim of this paper is to determine whether an
  automatic measurement system can be applied to
  educational settings.

46
Optional introduction Stage five
ImplicationsTentative present tense

• This research may contribute an alternative
  approach to the problem of manually demonstrating
  instrumentation principles in classroom
  environments.
• This research may provide an alternative to the
  common field measurement of soil erosion and
  runoff.

47
Overview of tenses in the Methods

• Describing multiple previous studies Present
  perfect tense
• Describing conventional material Present tense
• Describing modified material Past tense
• Describing general populations Present tense
• Specific samples Past tense
• Procedures Past tense

48
Use the present perfect tense when referring to
multiple previous studies

• Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have
  investigated the economic performance and
  management quality of banks in Taiwan.
• Previous research on the superconductivity of
  degenerate materials has been rare.

49
Findings, results, or suggestions of a single,
previous study Past tense

• Johnson Lin (2002) determined that calcium,
  zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice
  than in white rice.
• Taggert (2007) reported that in 85 of cases,
  the kidneys are affected by Wegners
  glomerulonephritis.

50
Describing conventional material Present tense

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally
  contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which
  serves as an electron source.
• Silicon is the core component of most
  semiconductor devices, and demonstrates
  electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.
• A typical chemical reactor includes a helical,
  tube-in-tube heat exchanger.

51
Describing a modified material Past tense

• For the testing program, this collector was
  protected from weather by an outer window of
  .10-mm tedlar.
• A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was
  modified by adding large-field vector deflection
  to examine remote radioactive specimens.
• The silicon used in this study was an n-type
  silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots
  grown using the Czochralski method.

52
Describing populations Present tense

• All students who apply for admission to NCTU
  take the General English Proficiency Test.
• Nearly 80 of Singaporeans are literate in
  English as either their first or second
  language.

53
Specific samples from a population Past tense

• The students surveyed in this study were not a
  randomly selected population and may not,
  therefore, be representative of all students at
  NCTU.
• The subjects were 18 Chinese-speaking students
  attending at NCTU.

54
Explain and describe equations and variables
Present tense

• This equation illustrates the expected behavior
  of the spin system as a function of time and
  initial conditions.

55
Procedures Past tense

• Stress was applied to the rubber segments.
• A questionnaire was administered to evaluate
  the current impact of nursing innovation in
  neonatal intensive care units.

56
Results

• Locating figures Present tense
• Presenting the findings Past tense
• Comparing results with the results of other
  studies Present tense and modals
• Commenting on results Present tense and/or
  tentative verbs

57
Locating figures Present tense

• Results of the t-tests are presented in Table
  1.
• Table II lists the results of the independent
  t-test.
• Figure 3(c) displays the chemical reaction
  scheme used to synthesize the copolymer.

58
Presenting the findings Past tense

• Subjects in this study spent more time engaged
  in activities that matched their interests and
  skill levels.
• Participants in each reward trial selected the
  high-probability stimulus significantly more
  often than the low-probability stimulus (P lt
  0.05).
• As a group, divorced mothers spent over twice as
  much time in employment as married mothers
  (Figure 2).

59
Presenting different types of results Past tense

• The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found
  among Australian Indians.
• Prices showed a tendency to increase over the
  three year period.
• Dry weight of top growth was not highly related
  to total nitrogen.

60
Comparing results with other studies Present
tense

• As opposed to previous research using noncontact
  specular microscopy, our Orbscan II measurements
  are significantly smaller.
• Conversely, our results demonstrate improved
  performance over previously proposed methods.

61
Commenting on results Tentative present tense

• Hyperactive children may be generally responsive
  to amphetamines.
• Hyperactive children appear to be generally
  responsive to amphetamines.
• Managerial accountants seem to be generally
  averse to outsourcing.
• Managerial accountants might be generally averse
  to outsourcing.

62
Overview of tenses in the Discussion

• Referring to the purpose, Referring to the
  hypothesis, Restating the findings Past tense
• Explaining findings Past or tentative present
  tense
• Limiting findings Past or tentative present
  tense
• Comparing findings Present tense
• Implications Tentative present tense
• Recommendations and applications Tentative
  present tense

63
Referring to the purpose, Referring to the
hypothesis, Restating the findings Past tense

• In this research, we attempted to assess two
  theories of behavior.
• We originally assumed that physical decrements
  would be more apparent in speed jobs that in
  skill jobs.
• The principle of readability was not followed in
  the income tax booklet on any of the counties
  studied except Hsinchu.

64
Explaining findings Tentative present tense with
past or present in second verb

• These results indicate that microbial activity
  caused some immobilization of labial soil
  phosphorus.
• These results indicate that microbial activity
  cause some immobilization of labial soil
  phosphorus.

65
Comparing findings to previous findings Present
tense

• These results are in substantial agreement with
  those of Bates (2).
• This outcome corresponds with that of Rundle et
  al. (2008).
• Our findings agree with those of both Cherundolo
  (2002) and Dempsey (2010).

66
Limiting findings Past or tentative present
tense

• The sample was small.
• Other industries may produce different results.
• The sample involved only children aged three to
  five years old.

67
Implications Tentative present tense

• Squatter housing markets seem to behave as
  economically rational entities.
• This antigen could behave as an adhesion
  molecule in NK-target cell interaction.
• Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on the
  external surface of subgingival plaque.

68
Recommendations and applications Tentative
present tense

• The approach outlined in this study should be
  replicated in other manufacturing plants.
• We recommend that the approach outlined in this
  study be replicated in other manufacturing
  plants.

69
How to Use Reporting Verbs
70
Reporting Verbs

• A reporting verb introduces information that is
  written by another author
• An author's name is often the subject of the verb
  
• The object or complement of a reporting verb
  usually contains information from an academic
  text
• Common in the Literature Review

71
Three reasons for using a reporting verb

• To present the aim of the study you are
  summarizing
• Smith (2010) examined the relationship between
  research and scholarly writing.
• 2) To talk about the results that the author you
  are summarizing
• Jones (2002) showed that deaths per capita in
  accidents are particularly high in developing
  countries.
• 3) To give the opinion of the author you are
  summarizing
• Smith (200296) argued that the adoption of
  just-in-time delivery systems was the decisive
  factor for Japanese economic success in the
  1980s.

72
Reporting verbs for the Aim of Study

• investigate
• examine
• analyze
• focus on
• identify
• report (on)

73
Reporting verbs for the Results

• show (that)
• find (that)
• identify (x) as
• reveal (that)
• establish (that)
• confirm (that)
• conclude (that)

74
Reporting verbs for Opinion

• state (that)
• believe (that)
• argue (that)
• point out (that)
• consider (that)
• hold (that)
• claim (that)

75
Reporting verbs for main points and supporting
points

• Common verbs for reporting claims (i.e.,
  statements) based on theory or research
• Main points Supporting points
• assert note
• claim observe
• state point out

76
Example of reporting a main point followed with a
supporting point

• Smith (2010) stated that poor diet was a key
  cause of obesity. He noted that obesity was a
  major issue in developing countries.

77
Example of reporting a result followed with a
conclusion drawn from that result

• In a study to investigate obesity, Smith (2012)
  showed that young people who ate fast food more
  than 3 times a week were heavier than young
  people who ate meals at home. This finding
  suggests that obesity is associated with eating
  fast food.

78
Poor reporting verbs Mention

• The verb 'mention' is unsuitable for reporting
  the results of experiments and studies.
• Smith (2010) mentioned three factors which can
  lead to obesity.
• The verb 'mention' makes the 'three factors' seem
  unimportant and not supported by evidence or
  analysis.

79
Poor reporting verb Say

• Can use 'say' to introduce a direct spoken
  quotation.
• Johnson says that further research into the
  causes of X is needed.
• Frequent use of the verb 'say' can make writing
  informal.

80
Using Reporting Verbs to Show Opinion
81
Reporting verbs show your opinion of others ideas

• 1) A belief that the literature is correct
  (stronger position)
• 2) A belief that the literature is incorrect
  (weaker position)
• 3) A neutral attitude  towards the veracity of
  the literature (i.e., neither correct nor
  incorrect neutral position)

82
Positive reporting verbs for agreeing with an
authors opinion

• Acknowledges
• Affirms
• Certifies
• Explains
• Identifies
• Observes

83
Example of expressing a positive opinion about
cited information

• Gardner (1994) observes that what turns good
  teaching material into good learning material is
  what teachers do with it.

84
Negative reporting verbs for disagreeing with an
authors opinion

• Accuses
• Claims
• Guesses
• Proclaims
• Expects
• Hopes

85
Example of expressing a negative opinion about
cited information

• Gardner (1994) claims that what turns good
  teaching material into good learning material is
  what teachers do with it.

86
Neutral reporting verbs for citing an authors
opinion

• Adds
• Concludes
• Describes
• Maintains
• Says (for spoken quote)
• States

87
Example of expressing a neutral opinion about
cited information

• Gardner (1994) states that what turns good
  teaching material into good learning material is
  what teachers do with it.

88
Examples of Strong, Neutral, and Weak Reporting
Verbs by Function
89
Verb function agreement

• Weaker position admits, concedes
• Neutral position accepts, acknowledges, agrees,
  concurs, confirms, recognizes
• Stronger position applauds, congratulates,
  extols, praises, supports

90
Verb function argument and persuasion

• Weaker position apologizes
• Neutral position assures, encourages,
  interprets, justifies, reasons
• Stronger position alerts, argues, boasts,
  contends, convinces, emphasizes, exhorts,
  forbids, insists, proves, promises, persuades,
  threatens, warns

91
Verb function disagreement and questioning

• Weaker position doubts, questions
• Neutral position challenges, debates, disagrees,
  questions, requests, wonders
• Stronger position accuses, attacks, complains,
  contradicts, criticizes, denies, discards,
  disclaims, discounts, dismisses, disputes,
  disregards, negates, objects to, opposes,
  refutes, rejects

92
Verb function discussion

• Weaker position comments
• Neutral position discusses, explores
• Stronger position reasons

93
Verb function presentation

• Weaker position confuses
• Neutral position comments, defines, describes,
  estimates, forgets, identifies, illustrates,
  implies, informs, instructs, lists, mentions,
  notes, observes, outlines, points out, presents,
  remarks, reminds, reports, restates, reveals,
  shows, states, studies, tells, uses
• Stronger position announces, promises

94
Verb function suggestion

• Weaker position alleges, intimates, speculates
• Neutral position advises, advocates,
  hypothesizes, posits, postulates, proposes,
  suggests, theorizes
• Stronger position asserts, recommends,

95
Verb function emphasis

• Weaker position (none)
• Neutral position accentuates, emphasizes,
  highlights,
• Stronger position stresses, underscores, warns

96
Verb function believing

• Weaker position guesses, hopes, imagines
• Neutral position believes, claims, declares,
  expresses, feels, holds, knows, maintains,
  professes, subscribes to, thinks
• Stronger position asserts, guarantees, insists,
  upholds

97
Verb function evaluation and examination

• Weaker position (none)
• Neutral position analyses, appraises, assesses,
  compares considers, contrasts, critiques,
  evaluates, examines, investigates,
• Stronger position blames, complains, ignores,
  scrutinizes, warns

98
Anthropomorphism

• An interpretation of what is not human or
  personal in terms of human or personal
  characteristics. (Merriam-Webster, 2010)
• "Do not attribute human characteristics to
  nonhuman animals or to inanimate sources." (APA
  2010, section 3.09)
• "An experiment cannot attempt to demonstrate,
  control unwanted variables, or interpret
  findings, nor can tables or figures compare (all
  of these can, however, show or indicate)." (p.
  38).

99
APA (2010) manual provides the following
examples

• Correct Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed
  to forage together.
• Incorrect Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed
  to forage together. (p. 69)
• Problem Rats cannot be rightly described as a
  couple that term is used with reference to
  people.
• Incorrect This experiment will attempt to
  demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.
• Correct The purpose of this experiment is to
  demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.

100
More APA examples

• Incorrect The community program was persuaded
  to allow five of the observers to become tutors.
• Correct The staff for the community program
  were persuaded to allow five of the observers to
  become tutors.
• Incorrect The National Education Association
  (NEA) feels that school reform is inappropriate.
• Correct Officials of the National Education
  Association (NEA) feel that school reform is
  inappropriate.

101
Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect The article discussed issues related
  to CBU in TFT-LCDs.
• Correct Rogers (2010) discussed issues related
  to CBU in TFT-LCDs.

102
Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect This experiment will attempt to
  demonstrate that X can affect Y.
• Correct The purpose of this experiment is to
  demonstrate that X can affect Y.

103
Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect The statistics argued in favor of
  adding X to Y.
• Correct The statistics indicated that X should
  be added to Y.

104
Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect The university wanted to discover a
  way to increase student enrollment.
• Correct The university administrators wanted to
  discover a way to increase student enrollment.

105
More examples of anthropomorphisms

• When the drill string feels the weight,
• TSMC stock enjoyed a 2 rise today

106
Using the verb feel in academic writing

• We feel that the best answer is X
• We feel that this conclusion is incorrect
• Feel has an emotional and not rational meaning
• Using this term can make you look uncertain,
  especially when you use it with quantities or
  conclusions

107
Verb tense Humanities (MLA)

• Books, Poems, Plays, Movies
• When you are discussing a book, poem, movie,
  play, or song the convention in the humanities is
  to use the present tense
• In An Introduction to English Grammar (2006),
  Noam Chomsky discusses several types of syntactic
  structures.
• In Paradise Lost, Milton sets up Satan as a hero
  who changes the course of history.

108
Verbs for Historical Contrast/ Humanities

• To contrast ideas from different periods, you can
  use the past and the present or present perfect
  tense. The past tense implies that an idea has
  lost its validity, while the present tense
  conveys the current state of acceptance.
• Stanley Fish (1993) maintained a reader-response
  stance in his analysis of Milton's L'Allegro and
  Il Penseroso. However, recent literary critics
  consider/have considered this stance to be
  inappropriate for the two poems.

109
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