Semantics

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Semantics

• Meaning in Language
• Asian 401

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Semantics

• The study of the systematic ways in which
  languages structure meaning, especially in words
  and sentences.
• Not an easy field the analysis of meaning is
  extremely difficult and messy

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Logical Semantics

• It seems simple words have meanings syntax
  combines the meanings in systematic ways.
• If we know the meanings of the words and the
  rules of the syntax, we know the meaning of the
  sentenceProfessor Handel teaches linguistics.

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Complications

• Much of what we say is not simply the assertion
  of truthful statements about the world.
• Many things we say are ambiguous or have indirect
  or multiple meanings.
• Ambiguity I saw her duck. How do we know which
  meaning is intended?

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Literal vs. Social Meaning

• Two friends meet. One says
• I really like your dress.
• Thats an ugly hair style youve got.
• You are very tall.
• All three statements are true. Why say the first
  but not the other two?

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Literal vs. Communicative Meaning

• Wife (sitting in living room) Dont you think
  its cold in here?
• Husband Yes.
• Why is this an odd conversation?
• Because The wife is making a request, not asking
  a question.
• Husband Ill turn up the heat.

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Logical Semantics

• What is the truth value of sentences? How can it
  be determined from its words and syntax?
• Entailment
• Contradiction
• The current king of France is tall.

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Pragmatics

• The study of how context, attitude, belief,
  intention, etc. inform linguistic meaning.
• How do utterances contribute to conversations and
  social relations?
• Sentences can signal intentions to be a good
  conversational partner, to be friendly, to be
  cooperative, etc.

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Pragmatics

• When learning another language, pragmatics can be
  harder to master than semantics.
• Why do people in China keep asking me if Ive
  eaten yet?
• Why does my Japanese friend always mention the
  weather in his letters?
• Politeness not related to semantics

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How do Languages Encode Meaning?

• Are linguistic concepts encoded in words, in
  syntactic structures, in intonation?
• How do languages differ?
• (Intonation Pinkies Tailor Shop joke.)

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Todays lecture

• Two examples of semantics
• Lexical Semantics
• Metaphor

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Lexical Semantics

• Lexeme word
• Lexical related to words
• Lexical semantics is the study of how meaning is
  encoded in words (as opposed to other linguistics
  structures like syntax or intonation.)

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Lexicalization

• As far as we know, all languages are capable of
  expressing all ideas.
• Languages differ in which meaning elements are
  encoded into words, and which are expressed with
  phrases.
• When something is encoded in a word, we say that
  it is lexicalized.

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Example Motion Verbs

• These meaning elements are relevant to motion
• What is moving (the object)
• How it is moving (the manner)
• Where it is moving (the path)
• Motion in the real world always involves all
  three aspects.

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Lexicalization of Motion Aspects

• Example A rock rolls down the hill.
• Which of these three aspects are lexicalized in
  different languages?
• In other words, which are encoded in the meaning
  of the motion verb, and which are expressed in
  other ways?

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English Motion Verbs encode Manner

• walk run climb crawl slither roll limp
  slide wriggle
• These verbs indicate the manner of movement, but
  not the path or object.
• I was crawling says nothing about path of
  motion. The sentence subject (not the verb)
  tells us what is moving.

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English Motion Verbs encode Manner

• To express path in English, we must add a
  preposition to the motion verb
• Walk up the stairs
• Run down the mountain
• Climb over the rocks
• Slide into the empty seat
• To express what is moving, we use a sentence
  subject.

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Romance Motion Verbs encode Path

• Spanish bajar move down, subir move up,
  cruzar move across, salir move out
• These verbs say nothing about manner. Describing
  manner requires the addition of an adverb, like
  rolling, crawling, etc.
• French, Italian, etc. are the same

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Atsugewi Motion Verbs encode Object Type

• From our textbook, it appears that Atsugewi
  motion verbs encode the object but not the manner
  or path
• Lup a small, shiny spherical object moves
• Swal a limp, linear object suspended at one end
  moves

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Chinese

• Two classes of motion verb
• Class 1 encodes manner tsow walk, pæaw
  run, tæjaw51 jump, pæa35 climb
• Class 2 encodes path t?in51 move in, tæu55
  move out, kwø51 move across, å51 move up

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Chinese

• To express both manner and path, you create a
  compound verb composed of one verb from each
  class
• tsowt?in51 walk in, pæawkwø51 run across,
  tæjaw51tæu55 jump out, pæa35å51 climb up

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Metaphor

• Using a word with a literal meaning for a second
  meaning that shares some common characteristics
  with the first meaning.
• We often think of metaphor as a device in poetry
  or other literary genres (rosy-fingered dawn).
  In fact our everyday language is full of
  metaphors.

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Metaphor Examples

• We were in the eye of the storm.
• The dollar is falling sharply.
• The pupil breezed through the SATs.
• When his dog died, it broke his heart.
• The guitarist is really on fire tonight!
• He has a high voice.
• The computers are down.

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Metaphors

• Metaphors allow us to be creative and vivid in
  our use of language.
• There are universal patterns of metaphor use
  found in all languages.
• But in many cases different languages use
  different metaphorical systems.

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Example 1 TIME is a PRECIOUS RESOURCE

• This will save me lots of time!
• Youre wasting time.
• Ill buy some time.
• Dont spend so much time its not worth it.
• (Not all languages talk about time this way!)

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Example 2 LOVE is a JOURNEY

• Our relationship just isnt going anywhere.
• It looks like Bill and Ann have hit a dead end.
• I really like you, but I think we need to slow
  down.
• (Can you think of other examples?)

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Example 3 HEART is the seat of emotions

• His heart isnt in it.
• Hes got a big heart.
• The kings heart was glad.
• Dont break my heart.
• Chinese få51 ?in55 release the heart set
  ones mind at ease, not worry

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Example 4a LIVER is the seat of emotions

• Eastern Cham (Austronesian language of Southern
  Vietnam)
• p?ta?w on-t?pon pa? h?ta?j
• king happy at liver
• The king was overjoyed.

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Example 4b LIVER/GALL are seats of emotions

• Mandarin Chinese
• ????
• kan55 tan214 t?y51 lj?51
• liver gall all broken
• to be broken-hearted

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Example 5 TIME as SPACE

• We talk about time (past, present, future) as
  locations in space.
• The future is in front, the past is behind
• I wonder what lies ahead?
• Dont look back at the past, look forward into
  the future.

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Example 5 TIME as SPACE

• Dont look left at the past, look right into
  the future.
• I wonder whats above on our schedule for
  tomorrow.

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Example 5 TIME as SPACE

• Chinese past is ABOVE, future is BELOW
• å51 k?51 ?i55t?æi55
• above CL week last week
• ?ja51 k?51 ?i55tæi55
• below CL week next week
• å51 k?51 y51 last month
• ia51 k?51 y51 next month

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Handout Exercise

• Can you identify the mappings (A is B, e.g.
  LOVE is a JOURNEY) that the metaphorical
  expressions on your handout are based on?

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End