Lets explore IVs and DVs

1
Lets explore IVs and DVs

• Andrea M. Karkowski
• Behavioral Sciences Department
• Capital University
• Columbus, OH 43209

2
Test Yourself

• The following slides contain portions of
  abstracts from research articles.
• From the information provided, identify
• IVs (and the levels of each)
• DVs
• Note that some of the examples are of
  correlational research, which does not have an
  IV.
• Answers are highlighted on subsequent slides
• IVs in green
• DVs in pink

3
Cross-national research is plagued by many
obstacles. This article focuses on one of these
obstacles the fact that research in more than
one country usually involves respondents with
different native languages. We investigated
whether the language of the questionnaire
influences response patterns. More specifically
we tested whether responding in a common language
(English) leads to a homogenization of responses
across countries, hence obscuring national
differences. We tested this hypothesis with a
sample of 3419 undergraduate students in 24
countries. Half the students in each country
received an English-language questionnaire, while
the other half received the same questionnaire in
their native language. Three types of questions
were included in the questionnaire questions
about cultural norms and values, questions about
characteristics of the ideal type of jobs that
students would prefer after graduation, and
questions about the reasons for choosing
particular electives in their studies.
(Harzing, 2005)
4
Cross-national research is plagued by many
obstacles. This article focuses on one of these
obstacles the fact that research in more than
one country usually involves respondents with
different native languages. We investigated
whether the language of the questionnaire
influences response patterns. More specifically
we tested whether responding in a common language
(English) leads to a homogenization of responses
across countries, hence obscuring national
differences. We tested this hypothesis with a
sample of 3419 undergraduate students in 24
countries. Half the students in each country
received an English-language questionnaire, while
the other half received the same questionnaire in
their native language. Three types of questions
were included in the questionnaire questions
about cultural norms and values, questions about
characteristics of the ideal type of jobs that
students would prefer after graduation, and
questions about the reasons for choosing
particular electives in their studies.
(Harzing, 2005)
5
Comparisons with counterfactual outcomes can
influence choices in sequential decisions. We
examine the effect of anticipated regret, and
"social takeover" the knowledge that someone
else might take over an investment one has
abandoned on persistence on an investment task.
Some participants received feedback about what
would have happened if they had continued
investing and others did not. Some knew that
another person had the opportunity to pick up
their investment where they left off and others
did not. Data collected from 84 dyads showed
effects of both experimental manipulations.
Participants invest longer, on average, when
another person could take over from their
previous investments, and when feedback was
provided. Both anticipated regret and social
takeover appear to increase the tendency to stick
with an investment. (Hoelzl Loewenstein, 2005)
6
Comparisons with counterfactual outcomes can
influence choices in sequential decisions. We
examine the effect of anticipated regret, and
"social takeover" the knowledge that someone
else might take over an investment one has
abandoned on persistence on an investment task.
Some participants received feedback about what
would have happened if they had continued
investing and others did not. Some knew that
another person had the opportunity to pick up
their investment where they left off and others
did not. Data collected from 84 dyads showed
effects of both experimental manipulations.
Participants invest longer, on average, when
another person could take over from their
previous investments, and when feedback was
provided. Both anticipated regret and social
takeover appear to increase the tendency to stick
with an investment. (Hoelzl Loewenstein, 2005)
7
Although the number of studies on research
utilization is steadily growing, there are only a
few specialty-specific studies. This study
focuses on medical and surgical nurses. It
compares their reported use of research
utilization and their perceptions of barriers and
obstacles. A convenient sample of 210 medical
nurses and 269 surgical nurses, from 10 general
hospitals in 14 Trusts in Northern Ireland (NI),
was surveyed. The results showed that the
reported extent of research utilization was high,
with less than 10 in each group reporting
never/seldom using research. The reported
difference between the medical and surgical
nurses was very small, with medical nurses
reporting a slightly higher rate of utilization.
However, this was not statistically significant
at 5 level. The Barriers Scale (Funk et al.,
1991) used in this study to assess their
perceptions of barriers and facilitators revealed
a similar picture for both groups. (Parahoo,
McCaughan, 2001)
8
Although the number of studies on research
utilization is steadily growing, there are only a
few specialty-specific studies. This study
focuses on medical and surgical nurses. It
compares their reported use of research
utilization and their perceptions of barriers and
obstacles. A convenient sample of 210 medical
nurses and 269 surgical nurses, from 10 general
hospitals in 14 Trusts in Northern Ireland (NI),
was surveyed. The results showed that the
reported extent of research utilization was high,
with less than 10 in each group reporting
never/seldom using research. The reported
difference between the medical and surgical
nurses was very small, with medical nurses
reporting a slightly higher rate of utilization.
However, this was not statistically significant
at 5 level. The Barriers Scale (Funk et al.,
1991) used in this study to assess their
perceptions of barriers and facilitators revealed
a similar picture for both groups. (Parahoo,
McCaughan, 2001)
9
Illness scripts are knowledge structures
composed of consequences, enabling conditions,
and faults. The effects of illness script
components--consequences and enabling
conditions--and physician factors on referral
decisions for gastrointestinal disorders were
investigated. The hypothesis that consequences
and enabling conditions increase the likelihood
of referral was confirmed and several
interactions between consequences and enabling
conditions were found. The hypothesis that
physician factors moderate the effect of enabling
conditions was also confirmed, but (contrary to
illness script theory) evidence was also found
for moderation of consequences. Both enabling
conditions and consequences were found to be
moderated by physician factors to a larger extent
than previously assumed by illness script
theory. (van Schaik et al., 2005)
10
Illness scripts are knowledge structures
composed of consequences, enabling conditions,
and faults. The effects of illness script
components--consequences and enabling
conditions--and physician factors on referral
decisions for gastrointestinal disorders were
investigated. The hypothesis that consequences
and enabling conditions increase the likelihood
of referral was confirmed and several
interactions between consequences and enabling
conditions were found. The hypothesis that
physician factors moderate the effect of enabling
conditions was also confirmed, but (contrary to
illness script theory) evidence was also found
for moderation of consequences. Both enabling
conditions and consequences were found to be
moderated by physician factors to a larger extent
than previously assumed by illness script
theory. (van Schaik et al., 2005)
11
Previous deception detection training studies
This paper tests the speculation that the simple
act of training, independent of the training
content, may improve accuracy simply because
those in training conditions process messages
more critically. This speculation was tested in
three studies that included both no training and
bogus training control groups. The bogus training
group was most accurate in Study 1, but this
finding failed to replicate in Study 2. A coding
study (Study 3) examined behavioral differences
in the stimulus tapes. The predicted differences
were observed in a final experiment (Study 4)
where training was based on the coded stimulus
tapes. The results suggest that the effects of
training are generally small and highly variable
from message to message, that valid training does
not produce large improvements over a bogus
training control, and that bogus training can
produce statistically significant improvements
over a no-training control. (Levine et al.,
2005)
12
Previous deception detection training studies
This paper tests the speculation that the simple
act of training, independent of the training
content, may improve accuracy simply because
those in training conditions process messages
more critically. This speculation was tested in
three studies that included both no training and
bogus training control groups. The bogus training
group was most accurate in Study 1, but this
finding failed to replicate in Study 2. A coding
study (Study 3) examined behavioral differences
in the stimulus tapes. The predicted differences
were observed in a final experiment (Study 4)
where training was based on the coded stimulus
tapes. The results suggest that the effects of
training are generally small and highly variable
from message to message, that valid training does
not produce large improvements over a bogus
training control, and that bogus training can
produce statistically significant improvements
over a no-training control. (Levine et al.,
2005)
13
The main objective of this study was to
determine the association between cognitive
restraint, nutritional intake and eating patterns
in free-leaving subjects. We administered a
questionnaire that included information about
eating behaviour (restraint, disinhibition, and
hunger), dietary intake, and physical activity
380 students (60 female) completed the study.
The association of restraint (low/high) and
disinhibition (low/high) with dietary intake was
tested. To identify eating patterns, factorial
analysis was employed. Among women, high
restrainers reported lower consumption of energy,
pastry, and starchy foods, and higher consumption
of vegetables, and fish, than low restrainers. In
male subjects, high restrainers consumed
significantly more vegetables than low
restrainers. (Moreira et al., 2005)
14
The main objective of this study was to
determine the association between cognitive
restraint, nutritional intake and eating patterns
in free-leaving subjects. We administered a
questionnaire that included information about
eating behaviour (restraint, disinhibition, and
hunger), dietary intake, and physical activity
380 students (60 female) completed the study.
The association of restraint (low/high) and
disinhibition (low/high) with dietary intake was
tested. To identify eating patterns, factorial
analysis was employed. Among women, high
restrainers reported lower consumption of energy,
pastry, and starchy foods, and higher consumption
of vegetables, and fish, than low restrainers. In
male subjects, high restrainers consumed
significantly more vegetables than low
restrainers. (Moreira et al., 2005)
15
To compare IRB processes in 68 U.S. hospitals
for the same multicenter study we surveyed IRB
processes in 68 U.S. hospitals during 2001-2002.
Requirements of IRB submission including type and
duration of review and qualifications of
principal investigator were compared by hospital
bed size, region, and academic affiliation. Mean
number of pages for the application was 5.24
(1-31) and up to eight copies were requested.
Time from submission of the IRB application to
approval averaged 45.4 days (range, 1-303 days),
and the majority of reviews were "expedited"
(61.8). Expedited reviews required more time
(mean, 54.8 days) than did either exempt (mean,
10.8 days) or full (mean, 47.1 days) reviews.
Current IRB review processes are cumbersome and
nonstandardized, and review time varies widely.
(Larson et al., 2004)
16
To compare IRB processes in 68 U.S. hospitals
for the same multicenter study we surveyed IRB
processes in 68 U.S. hospitals during 2001-2002.
Requirements of IRB submission including type and
duration of review and qualifications of
principal investigator were compared by hospital
bed size, region, and academic affiliation. Mean
number of pages for the application was 5.24
(1-31) and up to eight copies were requested.
Time from submission of the IRB application to
approval averaged 45.4 days (range, 1-303 days),
and the majority of reviews were "expedited"
(61.8). Expedited reviews required more time
(mean, 54.8 days) than did either exempt (mean,
10.8 days) or full (mean, 47.1 days) reviews.
Current IRB review processes are cumbersome and
nonstandardized, and review time varies widely.
(Larson et al., 2004)
17
Despite its potential relevance to the treatment
of drug abuse, conditioned inhibition of drug
seeking has not been systematically investigated
before. In this study, rats could self-administer
cocaine by lever pressing whenever a click or
tone was present. Responding was not reinforced
when a light was present. The light was presented
simultaneously with the click (i.e., in an
excitatory context) in 1 group, but the light was
always presented alone in another group. When it
was later presented in compound with the tone,
the light was a highly effective conditioned
inhibitor, suppressing cocaine seeking by 92 in
the former group and by 74 in the latter. These
results suggest ways to improve cue-oriented
behavioral treatments for drug abuse. (Kearns et
al., 2005)
18
Despite its potential relevance to the treatment
of drug abuse, conditioned inhibition of drug
seeking has not been systematically investigated
before. In this study, rats could self-administer
cocaine by lever pressing whenever a click or
tone was present. Responding was not reinforced
when a light was present. The light was presented
simultaneously with the click (i.e., in an
excitatory context) in 1 group, but the light was
always presented alone in another group. When it
was later presented in compound with the tone,
the light was a highly effective conditioned
inhibitor, suppressing cocaine seeking by 92 in
the former group and by 74 in the latter. These
results suggest ways to improve cue-oriented
behavioral treatments for drug abuse. (Kearns et
al., 2005)
19
The roadside crossing judgments of children aged
7, 9, and 11 years were assessed relative to
controls before and after training with a
computer-simulated traffic environment. Trained
children crossed more quickly, and their
estimated crossing times became better aligned
with actual crossing times. They crossed more
promptly, missed fewer safe opportunities to
cross, accepted smaller traffic gaps without
increasing the number of risky crossings, and
showed better conceptual understanding of the
factors to be considered when making crossing
judgments. All age groups improved to the same
extent, and there was no deterioration when
children were retested 8 months later. The
results are discussed in relation to theoretical
arguments concerning the extent to which
children's pedestrian judgments are amenable to
training. (Thomson et al., 2005)
20
The roadside crossing judgments of children aged
7, 9, and 11 years were assessed relative to
controls before and after training with a
computer-simulated traffic environment. Trained
children crossed more quickly, and their
estimated crossing times became better aligned
with actual crossing times. They crossed more
promptly, missed fewer safe opportunities to
cross, accepted smaller traffic gaps without
increasing the number of risky crossings, and
showed better conceptual understanding of the
factors to be considered when making crossing
judgments. All age groups improved to the same
extent, and there was no deterioration when
children were retested 8 months later. The
results are discussed in relation to theoretical
arguments concerning the extent to which
children's pedestrian judgments are amenable to
training. (Thomson et al., 2005)
21
When people discuss their memories, what one
person says can influence what another person
reports. In 3 studies, participants were shown
sets of stimuli and then given recognition memory
tests to measure the effect of one person's
response on another's. The 1st study (n 24)
used word recognition with participant-confederate
pairs and found that the effect of confederate
responses on participant responses was larger for
previously unseen items than for previously seen
items. This finding was replicated in the 2nd
study, which used photographs of cars (n 24).
In the 3rd study (n 54), which used photographs
of faces with participant pairs, the effect was
also larger for unseen items. Results indicate
that people rely more on other people's memories
for unremembered objects than for remembered
objects. This is important for both theories of
memory and applications (e.g., witnesses talking,
students studying together). (Wright et al.,
2005)
22
When people discuss their memories, what one
person says can influence what another person
reports. In 3 studies, participants were shown
sets of stimuli and then given recognition memory
tests to measure the effect of one person's
response on another's. The 1st study (n 24)
used word recognition with participant-confederate
pairs and found that the effect of confederate
responses on participant responses was larger for
previously unseen items than for previously seen
items. This finding was replicated in the 2nd
study, which used photographs of cars (n 24).
In the 3rd study (n 54), which used photographs
of faces with participant pairs, the effect was
also larger for unseen items. Results indicate
that people rely more on other people's memories
for unremembered objects than for remembered
objects. This is important for both theories of
memory and applications (e.g., witnesses talking,
students studying together). (Wright et al.,
2005)
23
This study showed that the values power
(dominance over nature and resources) and
universalism (respect for people and for nature)
are related to attitudes toward genetically
modified food (GMF) and organically grown food
(OGF). Furthermore, these values have an
influence on the centrality, commitment and
ambivalence of these attitudes. Values that are
positively related to an attitude influence how
central this attitude is to a person. However,
values that are negatively related to an attitude
have a larger effect on the commitment of this
attitude. No such pattern of effects was found
for the relationship between ambivalence and
values. These data suggest that centrality,
commitment, and ambivalence are structurally
different constructs that have a distinct
relationship with specific values. (Dreezens et
al., 2005)
24
This study showed that the values power
(dominance over nature and resources) and
universalism (respect for people and for nature)
are related to attitudes toward genetically
modified food (GMF) and organically grown food
(OGF). Furthermore, these values have an
influence on the centrality, commitment and
ambivalence of these attitudes. Values that are
positively related to an attitude influence how
central this attitude is to a person. However,
values that are negatively related to an attitude
have a larger effect on the commitment of this
attitude. No such pattern of effects was found
for the relationship between ambivalence and
values. These data suggest that centrality,
commitment, and ambivalence are structurally
different constructs that have a distinct
relationship with specific values. (Dreezens et
al., 2005)
25
There are many different methods of instruction
used in the academic setting. Little experimental
research exists examining which mode is more
effective in educating students. The purpose of
this study was to compare scores obtained on the
written and the practical examinations of
students on a single topic taught through either
a teacher-centered format or a student-centered
format. We examined the effects of teaching
style (teacher-centered instruction and
student-centered instruction), order (first or
second), and learning style (competitive,
collaborative, participant, avoidant, dependent,
and independent) on the scores obtained on a
written and a practical examination of gait and
crutch fitting. Forty pre-athletic training
students in their first semester of their first
year (16 males, 24 females) participated in this
study. (Livecchi et al., 2004)
26
There are many different methods of instruction
used in the academic setting. Little experimental
research exists examining which mode is more
effective in educating students. The purpose of
this study was to compare scores obtained on the
written and the practical examinations of
students on a single topic taught through either
a teacher-centered format or a student-centered
format. We examined the effects of teaching
style (teacher-centered instruction and
student-centered instruction), order (first or
second), and learning style (competitive,
collaborative, participant, avoidant, dependent,
and independent) on the scores obtained on a
written and a practical examination of gait and
crutch fitting. Forty pre-athletic training
students in their first semester of their first
year (16 males, 24 females) participated in this
study. (Livecchi et al., 2004)
27
Leptin deficiency has been associated with
extreme obesity and hyperphagia in rodents and
humans. A rare genetic disorder in humans yields
the absence of the hormone leptin, extreme
obesity, and a ravenous appetite. Reports on
these rare cases have indicated that therapy
using leptin injections can yield significant
weight loss and changes in appetite. The aim of
this report on acute leptin therapy in three
leptin deficient adults was to provide a
microanalysis of changes in eating behavior and
ratings of hunger and satiety. In addition to
substantial weight loss, 15 weeks of leptin
therapy was associated with approximately 50
reduction in food intake and substantial changes
in ratings of hunger and satiety before most
meals. After short-term leptin therapy, the three
participants ate until ratings indicated they
were satiated, which was comparable to the
ratings before leptin therapy. These findings
suggest. (Williamson et al., 2005)
28
Leptin deficiency has been associated with
extreme obesity and hyperphagia in rodents and
humans. A rare genetic disorder in humans yields
the absence of the hormone leptin, extreme
obesity, and a ravenous appetite. Reports on
these rare cases have indicated that therapy
using leptin injections can yield significant
weight loss and changes in appetite. The aim of
this report on acute leptin therapy in three
leptin deficient adults was to provide a
microanalysis of changes in eating behavior and
ratings of hunger and satiety. In addition to
substantial weight loss, 15 weeks of leptin
therapy was associated with approximately 50
reduction in food intake and substantial changes
in ratings of hunger and satiety before most
meals. After short-term leptin therapy, the three
participants ate until ratings indicated they
were satiated, which was comparable to the
ratings before leptin therapy. These findings
suggest. (Williamson et al., 2005)
29
The objective of this study was to conduct a
preliminary evaluation of an Internet-based
intervention for problem drinkers, comparing
changes in drinking between respondents who only
received the intervention to those who also
received a self-help book. After receiving a
personalized feedback summary on the Internet, 83
respondents provided complete baseline
information and volunteered to participate in a
3-month follow-up survey. Half of the respondents
were randomized to receive an additional
self-help book. The follow-up was returned by 48
respondents (69 female). There was minimal
support for an impact of the Internet
intervention alone. Respondents who received the
additional self-help book reported drinking less
and experiencing fewer consequences at follow-up
as compared to respondents who received only the
Internet-based intervention. (Cunningham et al.,
2005)
30
The objective of this study was to conduct a
preliminary evaluation of an Internet-based
intervention for problem drinkers, comparing
changes in drinking between respondents who only
received the intervention to those who also
received a self-help book. After receiving a
personalized feedback summary on the Internet, 83
respondents provided complete baseline
information and volunteered to participate in a
3-month follow-up survey. Half of the respondents
were randomized to receive an additional
self-help book. The follow-up was returned by 48
respondents (69 female). There was minimal
support for an impact of the Internet
intervention alone. Respondents who received the
additional self-help book reported drinking less
and experiencing fewer consequences at follow-up
as compared to respondents who received only the
Internet-based intervention. (Cunningham et al.,
2005)
31
This study investigates the relationship of
emotional intelligence (EI) characteristics, such
as perception, control, use and understanding of
emotions, with physical and psychological health.
In the first study, 365 individuals filled in
measures of EI and general health. It was
hypothesized that EI would be negatively
associated with poor general health. In the
second study, 212 working adults completed the
same measure of EI and another measure, which
apart from the standard information regarding
physical and psychological health, provided also
information about other health related
behaviours, such as smoking, drinking, and
exercising. It was also hypothesized that EI
would negatively correlate with smoking and
drinking and positively correlate with
exercising. The findings confirmed both
hypotheses and provided further support on the
claims that there is a relationship between EI
and health functioning. (Tsaousis, Nikolaou,
2005)
32
This study investigates the relationship of
emotional intelligence (EI) characteristics, such
as perception, control, use and understanding of
emotions, with physical and psychological health.
In the first study, 365 individuals filled in
measures of EI and general health. It was
hypothesized that EI would be negatively
associated with poor general health. In the
second study, 212 working adults completed the
same measure of EI and another measure, which
apart from the standard information regarding
physical and psychological health, provided also
information about other health related
behaviours, such as smoking, drinking, and
exercising. It was also hypothesized that EI
would negatively correlate with smoking and
drinking and positively correlate with
exercising. The findings confirmed both
hypotheses and provided further support on the
claims that there is a relationship between EI
and health functioning. (Tsaousis, Nikolaou,
2005)
33
How did you do?