Final Review Bio 9G

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Final ReviewBio 9G

• Vivian Alfonso
• Bio Peer Tutor

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Understanding the cell

• Movements of ions is what drives the Action
  Potential

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Parts of an Action Potential
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The whole picture
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What happens when neurotransmitters dont work
properly?
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• Parkinsons Disease
• Occurs in the _______
• Brain makes less _____
• Tremors, muscle spasm- inability to control
  muscle movements because of a loss of dopamine
• Treatment
• __________________ implant electrodes/pacemaker
  and zap the brain to reset itself into making DA
  to reduce tremors

• Myasthenia Gravis
• Occurs in __________
• Auto-immune attacks __________________ channels
• Treatment
• Give increasing amounts of _______________

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Toxins

• Botulinum Toxin (Botox)
• Produces toxin when kept in anaerobic environment
• __________________________________
• ACh is __________________
• _____________ muscle contraction
• Black widow spider venom (Latrotoxin)
• Increase number of _______________
• More vesicles fuse, more ACh released _______
  contraction

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Toxins cont..

• Sarin
• Blocks __________________ ___________ the
  breakdown of ACh _______ muscle contraction
• Affects the Parasympathetic NS
• Any part of the body that has parasympathetic
  activity will be affected

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The big picture
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Fuel for exercise
Glucose
2 Pyruvate
Lactic Acid
CO2 H2O ATP
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Glycolysis

• Expensive
• Occurs in the fluid of the muscle
• Fast
• Glucose 2 Pyruvate

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Cellular Respiration

• For ____________ exercise, but ____ maximal
• Pyruvate from glycolysis is put into mitochondria
• Requires oxygen
• Break down pyruvate
• 2 Pyruvate

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Anaerobic Fermentation

• At high power levels
• _____________________
• Work faster than your blood can bring your
  muscles oxygen
• Glucose Pyruvate
• NAD

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Muscle fiber types

• Muscle Fiber Types
• Parts of the muscle fiber
• Mitochondria- burns oxygen to make ATP
• Myoglobin- stores oxygen in muscle cell
• Capillaries- carry oxygen and glucose
• Contractile proteins
• Muscle glucose

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Slow Oxidative Fibers (Type 1)

• ________________
• Use mostly cellular respiration
• Has slow versions of _____________
  __________________
• Has extra mitochondria, myoglobin, capillaries

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Fast Oxidative Fibers (Type 2a)

• MID-LEVEL
• Glycolysis enzymes and cellular respiration
• Fast myosin and fast Ca2 pumps
• Mainly stores glucose

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Fast Glycolytic Fiber (Type 2b)

• ___________________
• Glycolysis enxymes
• Fast myosin and fast Ca2 pump
• Mostly glucose storage
• Mainly consists of ________________ and
  _____________
• Stains the darkest

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Note..

• Each muscle contains all types of muscle fiber
  types
• Motor unit

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Muscle recruitment

• The first muscle type to be recruited are the
  slow-oxidative fibers (__________)
• With prolonged exercise, fast-oxidative fibers
  (__________) are then activated next
• Lastly, fast-glycolytic fibers are activated
  (__________)

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Things you can do

• You cant change your muscle fiber type 1 to 2
• But! You can
• Endurance train
• Aerobic, increases O2 delivery
• Adds myoglobin, capillaries, mitochondria
• Type 2b ? 2a
• Strength train
• Max exercise to exhaustion
• Small damage to myofibrils
• Adds myofibrils, fuel storage bigger muscles

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Obesity

• Health problems that may result
• Sleep apnia
• Erectile dysfunction
• High cholesterol
• Cause of obesity
• Eating too much
• Genetic predispositions vary from person to
  person
• Appetite
• Metabolism
• Fat storage

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Treatment of obesity

• Lower calorie diets and exercise
• Drugs
• Lipase inhibitors
• Stimulants
• Bariatric Surgery
• Requires massive lifestyle change

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Bariatric surgery

• Gastric Bypass
• Take proximal portion of stomach- the intestine
  is rerouted here
• People lose weight because they physicaly cannot
  eat
• Lap Band surgery
• Put a collar around top portion of stomach (which
  you can adjust)
• Reversible
• Less invasive

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Gastric Bypass
Lap Band
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Midterm 1 Review
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Key Terms

• Artery carries blood Away from the heart
• Vein carries blood towards the heart
• Pulmonary lungs
• Systole contraction
• Diastole relaxation
• Isovolumic same volume
• High Pressure Low
  Pressure

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Heart Anatomy
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Cardiac Cycle
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Things to note on Cardiac cycle

• During this transition, pressure in the
  ventricles drops enough for the AV valves to open
  (pressure flows from HIGH to LOW)
• Note which stages occur in ventricular/atria
  diastole/systole

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Pressure Volume Curve
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A Different View Heart Sounds
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Mitral Valve Disorders

• Mitral Prolapse excess bulge of AV valve due to
  tendons holding valve weakening/stretched out
• Mitral Regurgitation ____ valve doesnt close
  properly, so _____________________ (unable to
  effectively get blood to body)
• Mitral Stenosis AV valve is _______ blood cant
  get in to ventricle because valves dont open all
  the way- blood gets stuck __________
  

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Aortic Semilunar Valve Disorders

• Aortic Regurgitation ______________
  _______________, blood in aorta is under
  extremely high pressure stretching out aorta and
  preventing valve from closing properly-
• BOUNDING PULSE
• Aortic Stenosis Valve cant open well, blood
  cant flow out of ventricle

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Signal Conduction

• Signal for contraction is due to Na channels
• In SA node- funny channels which open on their
  own set the pace for the heart contraction
  (100BPM)

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Heart Conduction System

• SA node located in the ______ __________
• Signal is sent to ___________, and _________ so
  atria contract together (40 BPM)
• Signal sent to _____________ then
  __________________ at APEX of heart then through
  the ventricles, after which ventricles contract
  together

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Heart Conduction and EKG
P wave QRS wave T wave
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EKG
P
T
QRS
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Heart Conduction Abnormalities

• Atrial Fibrillation
• damage to muscle cells in atria
• signal from SA node to AV node ________________,
  so signal is random
• AV block
• Atria and Ventricles beat independently
• P wave
• QRS wave

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• PVCs premature ventricular contractions
• Irregular QRS intervals
• Ventricular Fibrillation
• Similar to atrial fibrillation
• Ventricles cant get blood out of the heart
  effectively? death
• Source of sudden death in heart attack

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Blood vessels in body

• Composition of blood vessels
• Elastic tissue stretch of vessel
• Smooth muscle contraction/relaxation
• Fibrous tissue support
• Arteries
• Elastic deal with __________ pressure blood
  leaving the heart (think aorta)
• Thick and tough (bike wheel tire)
• Arterioles
• Rings of smooth muscle

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• Capillaries
• Location for ____________________________
• RBCs cannot cross membrane
• Connect to venuoles
• Veins
• Blood is under ________ pressure, so the walls of
  the vein are much _____________ than arteries
• Valves

Are there valves in the veins at the level of the
heart?
NO
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Overview
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Compliance
Veins High compliance (stretchy)
Artery Low compliance (not so stretchy)
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Volume versus Pressure

• Area is inversely proportional to velocity
• Capillaries have the largest cross sectional
  area, and have the slowest velocity
• Veins contain the highest volume of blood

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Midterm 2 Review
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Review of Veins

• Large diameter, so flow is moderate
• But veins deal with ___________________
• Veins have valves
• Skeletal muscle pump
• Muscle contraction
• Valves

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Blood vessel diseases
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Atherosclerosis

• Hardening/ thickening of artery
• Damage
• Inner lining of artery is ______________ in the
  blood
• High blood pressure
• Repair
• Body sends _________ to the area (hardening)
• Plaque
• Buildup of debris under inner arterial lining

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Atherosclerosis overview

• This ____________ arteries, causing them to
  stiffen
• Artery is weaker due to tissue damage
• Plaque can break off and block smaller vessels
  down the line
• Arteries Arterioles Capillaries

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Coronary Artery Disease

• Narrowing of coronary arteries by ___________
• Moderate enough plaque to cause reduced blood
  flow to heart
• Angina
• Severe
• No blood flow means that tissue will die
• Infarct
• Mycardial infarction

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Coronary Artery Disease

• You can prevent tissue death by noticing the
  symptoms
• Coronary bypass surgery

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Aneurysm

• Bulge in artery,
• 2 main kinds
• 1. Aortic
• 2. Cerebral
• Note Only when it ruptures is this a problem
  (internal bleeding)

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Stroke

• Death of brain tissue caused by a lack of blood
• Ischemic
• Hemorrhagic

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Concept map!
Ischemic Stroke
Coronary Artery Disease
Plaque
Atherosclerosis
Weakened Arterial Walls
Aneurysm
Hemorrhagic Stroke
Cerebellar
Aortic
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Cardiac OutputThe amount of blood pumped out of
the heart per minute

• Stroke Volume x Heart Rate

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Heart Rate Control

• Two factors
• Intrinsic Control within heart ex. SA node
  100BPM
• Extrinsic factors
• Nerves
• Hormones

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Nervous system breakdown
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Heart Rate Control

• Parasympathetic control of heart
• Sympathetic control of heart
• Important to note that sympathetic and
  parasympathetic nerves come out of different
  places (physically different nerves) yet control
  the same structure

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Extrinsic control of HR neurotransmitters

• Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves end
  at the SA node

SA node
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Quick terminology

• Neurotransmitters molecules/chemicals that are
  released by neurons
• Lock and key-
• Norepinephrine (NE)
• Acetylcholine (ACh)

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Neurotransmitters vs Hormones

• Hormones chemical/molecule released into blood
  stream
• Affect distant organs and last longer (a more
  global effect)
• Longer lasting effects
• Wider spread message
• Neurotransmitters released at specific
  locations, therefore only affect specific
  structures
• Local effect

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Extrinsic control Hormones

• No parasympathetic hormone released to the heart
• Sympathetic control
• Epinephrine
• Increases Heart rate

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Quick terminology

• Agonist mimics the effects of the
  chemical/molecule
• It can bind to the same receptor as the
  chemical/molecule
• Antagonist blocks binding or interaction of
  molecule/chemical with its respective receptor
• Prevents the molecule from having its effects

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Drug Modifiers of Heart Rate

• Pilocarpine cholinergic receptor agonist
• Atropine cholinergic receptor antagonist
• Epinephrine adrenergic receptor agonist
• Digitalis adrenergic receptor antagonist

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Cardiac OutputThe amount of blood pumped out of
the heart per minute

• Stroke Volume x Heart Rate

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Stroke Volume Control

• Two factors
• Intrinsic control
• Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
• Stroke volume increases
• Extrinsic control

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Extrinsic control of SV

• 1. Innervation of the heart muscle

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Extrinsic control review

• 2. Venous Return

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Exercise
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Exercise signals

• 1st effect of exercise ______________
  _______________________________
• Increased SNS increased arteriole
  vasoconstriction
• Local factors at muscles that are working
• Increased CO2 waste and lactic acid
• LOCAL FACTOR EFFECT

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Temperature Regulation in Exercise

• SNS shuts off blood to skin during exercise
• How do you prevent from frying your tissues?

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Effects of Aerobic Exercise

• 1. Hypertrophy of the heart
• Bigger heart muscle? increased ventricular
  contraction strength? increased SV

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• 2. Cardiac Output
• Train heart to have bigger SV so you can work
  out longer at higher intensity of exercise
• 3. Heart Rate
• 4. NS and Hormones
• Decreases SNS at rest and Decreases epinephrine
  (adrenaline) less stress

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Skeletal muscle

• Note skeletal muscle is striated- one of its
  defining characteristics ?

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Anatomy
Muscle
Muscle fiber
Myofibril
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Components for Muscle Contraction

• Myosin _____ filament (A Band- myosin And actin)
• Actin _____ filament (I Band)
• H Zone and I Band

Note troponin complex is like the GATE KEEPER-
Ca2 binds to troponin complex to move
tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites
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Putting it all together

• Inside the myofibril, you have contractile
  proteins

Z line
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Basic Idea of Muscle Contraction

• Ca2 binds to troponin complex and exposes active
  sites
• Ca2 released from ___________________, binds to
  troponin (which is bound to tropomyosin) and
  exposes Myosin binding sites
• Myosin binds
• Myosin pulls
• Myosin releases

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Cross Bridge Cycling- Muscle contraction

• 1. Myosin attached (just finished last pull), no
  ATP (head at 45)
• 2. ATP binds to myosin head and it lets go of
  actin

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• 3. ATP is broken down to ______ and ___- which
  are still bound to myosin and myosin is not
  attached to actin
• 4. Creation of ADP causes myosin to ______ to
  actin (crossbridge head at 90)
• 5. Phosphate released, leaving ADP --
  ________________
• 6. ADP falls off- myosin head is still attached

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The big picture
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Good Luck Studying!!