Soils School

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• Soils School
• April 2009
• Lake County
• Randall H. Zondag

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How To Understand a Soil Tests

• Objectives
• To understand soils
• To understand a soil test
• To be able to determine what to apply to soils
  as a result.

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How are Made ?
Wind Rain Hail Cold Rain Ice
Mineral, nutrients Ions in solution
Mechanical weathering
Oxides of iron and Aluminum
frost
Silica
2-layer Clay
3-layer clay
Arable, dry, tropical
Weak, Wet, swells, clods bogs, temperate
Silt
Sand Quartz
Fine parent material
Parent material
Chemical weathering Acid, moisture
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Average transpiration ratios for various plant
types Water amounts in kg per kg dry matter
(transpiration ratio).
water
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http//agguide.agronomy.psu.edu/cm/images/figure1-
10-3.gif
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• leaf tip yellowing followed by progressive
  necrosis
• scorched appearance
• eventual premature leaf drop

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Drains well, soaks up rain with little runoff

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Warms quickly in the spring
• Drains well, soaks up rain with little runoff

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Doesnt crust after planting

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Stores moisture during dry periods

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Has few clods and no hardpan '

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Resists erosion and nutrient loss

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Supports healthy population of soil life

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Has a rich earthy smell

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Produces healthy ,high quality crops

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Doesnt require heavy fertilizer for high yields'
  

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• What are Some Features
• of Good Soils ?
• Doesnt require heavy fertilizer for high yields'
  
• Produces healthy ,high quality crops

Stores moisture during dry periods

• Drains well, soaks up rain with little runoff

Warms quickly in the spring

• Doesnt require heavy fertilizer for high yields'

• Has a rich earthy smell
• Supports healthy population of soil life

Has few clods and no hardpan '
Doesnt crust after planting
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• Healthy Plants
• Friable soils
• Proper nutrient balance
• Proper soil pH acid vs. alkaline
• Proper root and crown spacing
• Ample soil moisture
• Proper soil temperature
• Proper light levels
• Pure air
• Free of insects and diseases

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Soil is..loose surface of the earth as
distinguished from solid rock.
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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Plant Nutrients
Potassium (K) Not a structural element but very
important from the point of view of plant
physiology improves the osmotic pressure or
swelling of the cells and thus regulates the
plants water retention. Enhances resistance to
frost and drought and the absorption capacity of
the roots. Stimulates the storage of
carbohydrates in the reserve cells. Potassium is
therefore extremely important if the plants
generative phase is to proceed satisfactorily. Cal
cium (Ca) Responsible for the structural and
physiological stability of the plant tissue, i.e.
for proper cell division, cell wall formation and
cell extension. Some of the typical consequences
of calcium deficiency are collapse of plant
tissue (e.g. bitter pit of apples, blossom end
rot in tomatoes). Magnesium (Mg) As the central
atom of chlorophyll (leaf green) of particular
importance to the process of photosynthesis.
Supports the assimilation of CO2 and the
synthesis of protein. Helps to stabilize the
cell membranes and activities a large number of
enzymes. Copper (Cu) Participates in the
production of carbohydrates and protein via
photosynthesis. Seventy percent of the copper in
a plant is in the chlorophyll.
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Plant Nutrients
Sulphur (S) As a constituent of amino acids,
sulphur promotes the synthesis of protein.
Sulphur deficiency symptoms are thus similar to
nitrogen deficiency symptoms. All the following
nutrients, i.e. the trace elements, are in all
cases constituents of enzymes and help to
activate enzyme systems. Boron (B) Promotes the
formation of protein which is required in order
to sustain meristem activity (meristem
embryonic tissue). Being part of the cell walls
it promotes the transport of carbohydrate through
the cell membranes. Supports assimilation to
supply the roots. Also important to blossom
formation. Cobalt (Co) Not an essential
nutrient for plants, but has been shown to be
beneficial. Promotes growth. Essential,
however, to the formation of nodules in
legumes. Phosphorus (P) A constituent of
compounds essential for life, particularly in the
conversion of energy. Activates organic
substances. An important constituent of basic
structures such as cell membranes and nucleic
acids (carriers of the genetic code).
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Plant Nutrients
Iron (Fe) Through its part in complex enzyme
reactions iron plays an important role in the
formation of chlorophyll and protein. Manganese
(Mn) Extremely important to photosynthesis, or
more precisely the Hill Reaction, i.e. the
splitting of the water molecule. Plays an
important part in the CO2 assimilation and the
metabolism of N. Molybdenum (Mo) Essential for
the activation of nitrate reductase (the
conversion of nitrate into nitrite). There is a
higher Mo requirement when NO3 is supplied as a
feed than with NH4. Molybdenum is the key to
nitrogen fixing, particularly in
legumes. Nitrogen (N) A constituent of protein
and hence the promoter of growth. Also a
constituent of enzymes which accelerate the
metabolic process and control metabolism through
their catalytic action and of other
physiologically important materials. Directly
involved in photosynthesis as a constituent of
chlorophyll (leaf green). N is absorbed in the
form of NH4 (ammonia), NO3 (nitrate) or CO (NH2)2
(urea). Zinc (Zn) Similar to magnesium and
manganese in its physiological activity.
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• How Does a Plant Grow Naturally?

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SOIL From the Ground, Up!
Soil Properties
They are not independent they interact to
affect soil characteristics
Biological
Physical
Chemical
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Soil Biology

• Microorganisms
• bacteria
• fungi (e.g. mycorrhizas)
• protozoa
• nematodes
• Macroorganisms
• arthropods
• earthworms
• nematodes
• Decomposition / Nutrient Recycling
• Aeration
• Aggregation (e.g. microbial glue)

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Biological Diversity - Out of Africa
ORGANIC MATTERS!

• The soil ecosystem includes decomposers,
  producers, and consumers.
• Decomposers breakdown organic material freeing
  nutrients and essential organic compounds
• Producers use the nutrients to build organic
  compounds and reproduce.
• Consumers recycle decomposers and producers by
  eating them theyre the lions!

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Compost A great, inexpensive product, needs

• Salt control
• pH buffering
• Ammonium Levels
• Fatty Acids
• Oxygen supply

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Soil Physical Properties

• Soil Texture,
• Tilth
• Consistency, Structure
• Soil Compaction (Bulk Density)
• Soil Moisture

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SOIL Physical Properties
Physical Properties of Soil

• Texture the mineral components
• Consistency Structure how the soil is put
  together
• Compaction (measured by Bulk Density)
• Soil Moisture

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Soil Structure and Compaction
Compaction decreases macropores by crushing
aggregates. Micropores cannot be reduced unless
soil particles fracture, so they usually increase
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Bulk Density a measure of soil compaction
To calculate Bulk Density
1.33
Volume 1 cm3
Bulk Density
1
Weight 1.33 gms
Weight of Soil
Bulk Density
1.33 gms / cm3
Bulk Density
Volume of Soil
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Dr. Kim Coder, Univ. of Georgia
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Soil Structure and Compaction
Bulk Density Compaction Zones
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Soil Chemistry

• Chemical bonding
• pH
• Nutrient Availability
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

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SOIL From the Ground, Up!
Soil Properties

• Physical Properties
• Soil Texture, Consistency, Structure
• Soil Compaction (Bulk Density)
• Soil Moisture
• Chemical Properties
• pH
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
• Mineral Nutrient Availability

• Biological Properties
• Microorganisms
• bacteria
• fungi (e.g. mycorrhizas)
• protozoa
• nematodes
• Macroorganisms
• arthropods
• earthworms
• nematodes
• Decomposition / Nutrient Recycling
• Aeration
• Aggregation (e.g. microbial glue)

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Taking a Soil Sample
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Take a composite sample
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What Does a Soil Test Look Like ?
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What Do Soil Tell US

• pH
• Buffered index, buffered pH , LTI
• Nutrient quantities pounds per acre or ppm
  (parts per million)
• Soluble salts levels
• CEC
• Organic Matter levels
• Micro nutrient levels
• Base Saturation numbers

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Soil Chemistry Soil Test
To convert lb/A (pounds per acre) to ppm (parts
per million), divide by 2 100 lb/A 50 ppm
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Soil Testing the only way to determine levels
of available elements present
Proper levels 5.56.5 50-100 250-400
800 150-200 7 pH
P K Ca Mg CEC
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Acceptable Levels From Standard Soil Test

• Test Parameter Acceptable
  Range
• Ph 5.8 to
  6.5 (ideal 6.2)
  Lime Test Index 68 to
  70 Phosphorus (P)
  lb/acre 50 to 75
  Potassium (K) lb/acre 200 to
  350
• Calcium (Ca) lb/acre 2000
  Magnesium (Mg) lb/acre 150 to
  200
• Cation Exchange Capacity - Course Textures
  (sands)1 to 7
  Cation Exchange Capacity - Medium Textures
  (silts)7 to 15
  Cation Exchange Capacity - Fine Textures
  (clays)16 to 30 plus
• Base Saturation, Ca 40 to
  80 Base
  Saturation, Mg 10 to 40
  Base
  Saturation, K 1 to 5

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What is pH?

• The measurement of acidity (H) or alkalinity
  (OH) in the soil .
• Affects nutrient availability
• Determines what plants will grow well in some
  sites .

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Soil pH
. There is a correct soil pH range for all
plants. When the soil pH is either below or above
this range, nutrient uptake is reduced and plant
performance is hurt. Therefore apply only the
recommended amounts of lime (to increase the soil
pH) or sulfur (to lower the soil pH).
Split applications into no more than 50 lb./1000
sq. Ft. (5lb./100 sq. Ft.) Spring fall.
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Soil Chemistry pH
pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
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Soil Chemistry pH
Blueberry 4.5 - 5.0
Azalea 4.5 - 5.5
White Pine 4.5 - 6.0
Tomato 5.5 - 7.5
Black Walnut 6.2 - 7.5
Pin Oak above 7.5 Chlorosis
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Buffered pH or Lime Test Index (LTI)

• The amount of Calcium (Ca) or Magnesium (Mg)
  that is found on soil particles that will control
  the rate at which pH changes.
• Numbers usually between 60 and 70 or 6.0 to 7.0 .
  The higher the number the more difficult it will
  be to drop pH ,but it will be very easy to raise
  the pH.
• Determine lime or sulfur application .

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How Do We Affect pH?

• Adding Lime to raise the pH . How much and what
  forms ? (dolomite, hydrated)
• Sulfur to lower the pH ? How Much and what
  forms?(iron sulfate, aluminum sulfate , elemental
  sulfur, sulfur coated fertilizers).

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Buffered pH or Lime Test Index (LTI) example

• Two soils with a pH of 6.4.
• One has a LTI of 65
• One has a LTI of 62
• How much lime will it take to raise the ph to 7.0
  ?

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Soil Chemistry Buffer
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Soil Chemistry Lime
H
CaCO3
Clay Particle
(Lime)
H
-
Ca
H2O CO2
Clay Particle
(water)
(carbon dioxide)
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Total Neutralizing Power (TNP)

• Total Neutralizing Power (TNP) is a measure of
  the ability of a liming material to raise the pH.
  
• The percentage of calcium, percentage of
  magnesium, and impurities, such as silt and clay,
  determine TNP.
• Pure calcium carbonate has a neutralizing power
  of 100 other liming materials are compared on a
  percentage basis with it (Table 3).
• The two major liming materials are dolomitic and
  calcitic limestone. Both are sources of calcium
  and magnesium, but the percentage of each varies
  and thus the TNP varies.

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Total Neutralizing Power (TNP)

• Dolimitic limestone contains approximately 20 to
  22 calcium and 11 to 13 magnesium. Because of
  molecular weight differences, magnesium
  carbonateon a pound for pound basisis 16 more
  effective in raising the pH than calcium
  carbonate. Therefore the TNP will normally range
  from 100 to 110 for dolomitic limestone.

• Calcitic or hical lime contains approximately 32
  to 35 calcium, 2 to 5 magnesium, and has a TNP
  of 90 to 99.

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Fineness of Grind

• Fineness of grind is also considered when
  determining the tNP of a liming material. Because
  the neutralization of soil acidity is based upon
  the dissolution of the lime material in soil
  solution, the finer the grind, the more effective
  the material is in neutralizing soil acidity
  quickly. Fineness of aglime in Ohio is determined
  by passing a lime material through three
  different sized screens. The percentage of
  materials that pass 8, 20, and 60 mesh screens is
  used to compute a fineness index (FI) (the higher
  the mesh number, the smaller the lime particle).
  Liming materials that contain smaller particles
  neutralize soil acidity faster and more
  effectively than materials with larger particles
  when applied at equivalent rates. The fineness
  index of a liming material is calculated using
  Equation 2.
• Equation 2FI (0.2 ( pass 8 pass 20))
  (0.6 ( pass 20 pass 60)) (1 pass 60)

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Calcium

• Other cations Being a major cation, calcium
  availability is related to the soil CEC, and it
  is in competition with other major cations such
  as sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium
  (Mg), Ammonium (NH4), iron (Fe), and
  aluminum (Al) for uptake by the crop. High K
  applications have been known to reduce the Ca
  uptake in apples, which are extremely susceptible
  to poor Ca uptake and translocation within the
  tree.

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Calcium

• Boron(B-) High soil or plant Calcium levels can
  inhibit B uptake and utilization. Calcium sprays
  and soil applications have been effectively used
  to help detoxify B over-applications.

• Iron(Fe) and Aluminum(Al) As the pH of a
  soil decreases, more of these elements become
  soluble and combine with Ca to for essentially
  insoluble compounds.

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Calcium Sources

• Liming Material Approx. Ca.Recommendation
  Rate
• Calcitic Limestone 32 1,000 to
  15,000lb./A
• Dolomitic Limestone 22 1,000 to
  15,000 lb./A
• Hydrated Limestone 46 750 to
  10,000 lb./A
• Precipitated Lime 60 500 to
  10,000 lb./A
• Blast Furnace Slag 29 100 to
  2,000 lb./A
• Fertilizers Approx. Ca. Recommended Rates
  ofProduct
• Gypsum 22 500
  to 1500 lb./A
• CaCI 36
  5-8 lb./A Foliar
• Ca(NO3) 2 19
  10-15 lb./A
  Foliar
  Ca-Chelates 3-5 0.25-3 gal/A
  Foliar

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Gypsum

• To remove excess sodium (Na)
• To build soil calcium (Ca) levels when a pH
  change is not desired

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Increasing Soil Calcium (Ca) Saturation

• Lb. gypsum/acre C.E.C. x (desired Ca sat. -
  present Ca sat) x 18

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What Causes acidity in Soils?

• H
• Al
• Fe

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Approximate amount of ground sulfur needed to
decrease the pH of the upper 7 inches of soil
types to 6.5.
Sulfur recommendations are based on using
aground sulfur material containing 95 S.
Sulfur to apply (lbs/1,000 square feet
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Fertilizers are designed to provide the elements
necessary for plant growth. About 90 of the
plant weight is made up of water. The remaining
mass constitutes the plant dry weight, which is
made up primarily of 17 elements that are
required for plant growth. Let's define some
terms.
Essential nutrients are the 17 elements required
for proper plant growth and development. They are
C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B,
Mo, Cl, Ni.
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) make up
90 of the plant dry weight. These elements are
obtained from air or water and are not included
in fertilizers.
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Macronutrients are those essential nutrients that
plants require in large amounts. They are N, P,
and K, which are the primary macronutrients, and
Ca, Mg, and S, which are the secondary
macronutrients.
Micronutrients are those essential nutrients that
plants require in small amounts Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,
B, Mo, Cl, Ni.
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Nitrogen-N - Macro Phosphorous P
Potassium- K Magnesium-Mg Calcium-
Ca Meso Sulfur- S Boron- B Iron
Fe Trace Copper- Cu Manganese- Mn
Molybdenum Mo Zinc Zn Chlorine
Cl- Cobalt Co Nickel-
Ni
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Soil Chemistry
Magnets
Un-likes Attract
Likes Repel
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Soil Chemistry
Soil
Magnets
Un-likes Attract
Likes Repel
NO3- Nitrate
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Soil Chemistry
Common Soil Cations Anions

• Nitrate N NO3-
• Chloride Cl Cl-
• Sulphate S SO4--
• Phosphate P H2PO4-

• Potassium K K
• Hydrogen H H
• Sodium Na Na
• Calcium Ca Ca
• Magnesium Mg Mg
• Aluminum Al Al
• Copper Cu Cu
• Ammonium NH4 NH4

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Nutrient Relationships
A crops yield is restricted by the lack of one
single element even though there may be
sufficient quantities of all other essential
elements. J. von Liebig
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Cation Exchange Capacity

• The CEC is the abbreviation for the cation
  exchange capacity of the soil. Any element with a
  positive charge is called a cation and in this
  case, it refers to the the basic cations, calcium
  (Ca2), magnesium (Mg2), potassium (K1) and s
  odium (Na1) and the acidic cations, hydrogen
  (H1) and aluminum (Al3). The amount of these
  positively charged cations a soil can hold is
  described as the CEC and is expressed in
  milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq/100g) of
  soil. The larger this number, the more cations
  the soil can hold.

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Cation Exchange Capacity (C.E.C.)
C.E.C. is a measure of the capacity of a soil to
hold exchangeable nutrients that have a positive
electrical charge (cations), such as hydrogen
(H), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
potassium (K).
Soils with a high C.E.C. can supply large amounts
of nutrients. However, they also require large
amounts of fertilizer to be considered "fertile".
Low C.E.C. soils, such as sand, have low nutrient
holding and supplying power. Therefore, more
frequent applications of low rates of fertilizer
are normally preferred.
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Both clay and organic matter serve as potential
sources of nutrients by attracting cations. Soils
with large amounts of clay or organic matter have
higher exchange capacities than sandy soils,
which are usually low in organic matter. Much
more exchange capacity, however, is provided by
the presence of even moderate amounts of organic
matter, which also benefits the soil in other
ways, such as improving soil tilth.
1-7
Coarse sands
8-15
Medium silts
16-30
Fine (clays)
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Soil Chemistry CEC
The Passengers

• H hydrogen
• K potassium
• Mg magnesium
• Ca calcium

hop on the bus, Gus.
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Soil Chemistry CEC
The Chemistry of Clay
Cationic Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Clay particles carry negative charges
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24 hours
230
30 seconds
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50
27
7
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21
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• The total CEC will be the sum of the calculations
  from the 5 previous equations.
• H, meq/100g soil 8 (8.00 - 7.70) 2.40
• K, meq/100g soil 221 782 0.28
• Mg, meq/100g soil 28 240 0.12
• Ca, meq/100g soil 400 400 1.00
• Na, meq/100g soil 12 460 0.03
• --------
• Total CEC 3.83 meq/100g soil

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Base Saturation

• The percent base saturation tells what percent of
  the exchange sites are occupied by the basic
  cations. If calcium has a base saturation value
  of 50 and magnesium has a base saturation value
  of 20 as shown above, then calcium occupies half
  o f the total exchange sites (CEC) and magnesium
  occupies one-fifth of the total exchange sites
  (CEC).

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Proponents of cation balancing consider base
saturation ratios of about 65-75 Ca, 10-15 Mg,
2-5 K, 0.5-3 Na and 10-15 H optimal for soil,
crop and livestock health. This guideline is
sometimes called the Albrecht Formula, after soil
scientist William Albrecht who researched and
developed it. For sandy soils with low CEC, the
formula is modified slightly, to about 60 Ca,
20 Mg and 6-8 K.
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To calculate the percent base saturation, divide
the sum of the K, Mg, Ca, and Na (the bases) in
meq/100g soil by the CEC (all these values were
calculated above). Multiply the result by 100

• EXAMPLE
• K 0.28 meq/100g soil
• Mg 0.12 meq/100g soil
• Ca 1.00 meq/100g soil
• Na 0.03 meq/100g soil
• CEC 3.83 meq/100g soil
• Total for bases K Mg Ca Na 1.43
  meq/100g soilPercent base saturation (1.43
  3.83)(100) 37

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Acidity

• The acidity on the report is the amount of the
  total CEC occupied by the acidic cations (H1and
  Al3). The acidity, like the CEC, is expressed as
  meq/100g of soil. If the CEC is 5 meq/100g of
  soil and the acidity is 1 meq/100g of soil (see
  sa mple above), then one-fifth of the exchange
  sites in the soil are occupied by acidic hydrogen
  and aluminum ions. The remaining 4 meq/100g of
  soil (or 80 of the CEC) will be occupied by the
  basic cations. The more acidic a soil is and the
  lower the soil pH value, the closer the acidity
  number will be to the CEC number.

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pH related to Base Saturation

• Soil pH Base Saturation
  3.9 0
  4.5
  0
• 5.3 25
• 6.2 50
• 7.1 75
• 7.5 90
• 8.0 100

A favorable base saturation will be obtained if
the soil pH is maintained between 5.8 and 6.5
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Plant Nutrients
Potassium (K) Not a structural element but very
important from the point of view of plant
physiology improves the osmotic pressure or
swelling of the cells and thus regulates the
plants water retention. Enhances resistance to
frost and drought and the absorption capacity of
the roots. Stimulates the storage of
carbohydrates in the reserve cells. Potassium is
therefore extremely important if the plants
generative phase is to proceed satisfactorily. Cal
cium (Ca) Responsible for the structural and
physiological stability of the plant tissue, i.e.
for proper cell division, cell wall formation and
cell extension. Some of the typical consequences
of calcium deficiency are collapse of plant
tissue (e.g. bitter pit of apples, blossom end
rot in tomatoes). Magnesium (Mg) As the central
atom of chlorophyll (leaf green) of particular
importance to the process of photosynthesis.
Supports the assimilation of CO2 and the
synthesis of protein. Helps to stabilize the
cell membranes and activities a large number of
enzymes. Copper (Cu) Participates in the
production of carbohydrates and protein via
photosynthesis. Seventy percent of the copper in
a plant is in the chlorophyll.
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Plant Nutrients
Sulphur (S) As a constituent of amino acids,
sulphur promotes the synthesis of protein.
Sulphur deficiency symptoms are thus similar to
nitrogen deficiency symptoms. All the following
nutrients, i.e. the trace elements, are in all
cases constituents of enzymes and help to
activate enzyme systems. Boron (B) Promotes the
formation of protein which is required in order
to sustain meristem activity (meristem
embryonic tissue). Being part of the cell walls
it promotes the transport of carbohydrate through
the cell membranes. Supports assimilation to
supply the roots. Also important to blossom
formation. Cobalt (Co) Not an essential
nutrient for plants, but has been shown to be
beneficial. Promotes growth. Essential,
however, to the formation of nodules in
legumes. Phosphorus (P) A constituent of
compounds essential for life, particularly in the
conversion of energy. Activates organic
substances. An important constituent of basic
structures such as cell membranes and nucleic
acids (carriers of the genetic code).
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Plant Nutrients
Iron (Fe) Through its part in complex enzyme
reactions iron plays an important role in the
formation of chlorophyll and protein. Manganese
(Mn) Extremely important to photosynthesis, or
more precisely the Hill Reaction, i.e. the
splitting of the water molecule. Plays an
important part in the CO2 assimilation and the
metabolism of N. Molybdenum (Mo) Essential for
the activation of nitrate reductase (the
conversion of nitrate into nitrite). There is a
higher Mo requirement when NO3 is supplied as a
feed than with NH4. Molybdenum is the key to
nitrogen fixing, particularly in
legumes. Nitrogen (N) A constituent of protein
and hence the promoter of growth. Also a
constituent of enzymes which accelerate the
metabolic process and control metabolism through
their catalytic action and of other
physiologically important materials. Directly
involved in photosynthesis as a constituent of
chlorophyll (leaf green). N is absorbed in the
form of NH4 (ammonia), NO3 (nitrate) or CO (NH2)2
(urea). Zinc (Zn) Similar to magnesium and
manganese in its physiological activity.
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Lets Read a Soil Test
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Soils Test Results

• pH 6.7
• Buffer pH 6.9
• Phosphorous 16 ppm
• Potassium 147 ppm
• Calcium 1750 ppm
• Magnesium 154 ppm
• CEC 10.7
• Base Satuation k3.1 Mg 10.4 Ca 71.7

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What is Good ?

• pH 6.7
• Buffered pH 6.9
• P 16 ppm low
• K 147ppm ok
• Ca 1470 ppm high
• Mg 154 high

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Approximate amount of ground sulfur needed to
decrease the pH of the upper 7 inches of soil
types to 6.5.
Sulfur recommendations are based on using
aground sulfur material containing 95 S.
Sulfur to apply (lbs/1,000 square feet
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Acceptable Levels From Standard Soil Test

• Test Parameter Acceptable
  Range
• Ph 5.8 to
  6.5 (ideal 6.2)
  Lime Test Index 68 to
  70 Phosphorus (P)
  lb/acre 50 to 75
  Potassium (K) lb/acre 200 to
  350
• Calcium (Ca) lb/acre 2000
  Magnesium (Mg) lb/acre 150 to
  200
• Cation Exchange Capacity - Course Textures
  (sands)1 to 7
  Cation Exchange Capacity - Medium Textures
  (silts)7 to 15
  Cation Exchange Capacity - Fine Textures
  (clays)16 to 30 plus
• Base Saturation, Ca 40 to
  80 Base
  Saturation, Mg 10 to 40
  Base
  Saturation, K 1 to 5

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Corrective vs Maintenance

• Corrective Fertilizer brings soils up to where
  they should be
• Maintenance replaces what a plant will use or
  what is lost to nature.

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Correct the Phosphorous

• P 16 ppm or 32 pounds per acre
• Desired levels 50- 100 pounds per acre
• We are about 70 pounds low .
• If I choose to use 0-46-0 to correct , how much
  product will I add to my soils?
• Divide 70 by .46 you will have a answer of ?
• 152.17 pounds per acre or 3.5 pounds per 1000
  sq. feet .

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Correct Potassium

• K 147 ppm or 294 pounds per acre
• Lets say we want to correct to 350/acre
• We are about 50 pounds short
• Using 0-0-60 ,howm uch product do we apply to
  correct .
• 50 divided by .60 equals
• 83.3 pounds per acre or1.9 per 1000

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How do we Maintain These Levels?

• In established landscapes I will apply 1.5 to 3
  pounds of N per 1000 square feet per years using
  a 3-1-2 ratio product or close.
• What are examples of a 3-1-2 ratio product?
• 30-10-20, 18-6-12, 21-7-14 (how much?)
• 30-10-20 has 30 N, If I wanted to apply one
  pound of N I would apply 3.3 of product

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When and How Much

• Most plants will not absorb much nutrient until
  they grow in the spring. Many people would apply
  between 40 and 60 of the fertilizer in a slow
  release form in spring.
• Once we have had a hard frost in the fall we will
  apply the rest of the product in a fast release
  form.

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What is a Fertilizer ?

• Materials people apply to soils to improve the
  nutrient levels. When done properly it improves
  the growth of plants .

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An Organic Fertilizer
is derived from a living plant or animal  source
Chemical or Mineral Fertilizers
are either mixed  or  manufactured and  have  the
advantage of low  cost
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Fertilizer

• Any material used to supply one or more of the
  essential plant nutrient elements.

Fertilizer ratio
The relative proportion of N, P, and K. The
ration of 16-4-8 is 412 or 4 parts nitrogen to
1 part phosphorus to 2 parts potassium
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Balanced fertilizer
A fertilizer containing equal parts of each major
element, i. e. 10-10-10
Complete fertilizer
A fertilizer containing contains nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Examples of commonly
used fertilizers are 10-10-10, 16-4-8, and
12-4-8.
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Incomplete fertilizer
A fertilizer missing one or two of the major
elements, i. e. 0-20-0.
Fertilizer analysis
The minimum amount of each element in a
fertilizer as stated on the label
Chelate
Chemical compounds that help hold metal ions
(such as iron) in solution so the plant can
adsorb them more readily.
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High analysis
A fertilizers containing 30 percent or more
active nutrients, i. e. ammonium nitrate 33-0-0.
The cost per bag is usually more but the cost per
pound of nutrient is less (therefore the cost for
fertilizing a given area is less).
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What Types Of Fertilizers Are There ?

• Mineral or Chemical Fertilizers
• Organic Fertilizers
• Synthetic Fertilizers

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Format

• Granular
• Liquid
• Coated

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Soil and foliar Mn levels were highly correlated
to soil pH. As soil pH decreased, available soil
Mn levels increased, as did the concentration of
foliar Mn. Soil pH between 5.0 and 5.6
consistently resulted in healthy red maple trees
with no sign of chlorosis. As soil pH increased
beyond 5.6, Mn levels in plant foliage decreased,
and the associated chlorosis became more intense
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Slow Release Fertilizers
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) (38-0-0). Released by
microbial degradation.          Isobutylidene
diurea (IBDU) (31-0-0). Released by soil moisture
and particle size.          Sulfur coated urea
(SCU) (36-0-0). Release rate controlled by
coating thickness.          Plastic coated
fertilizers (various formulations). Release
dependent on temperature and coating thickness.
         Natural organics--some types listed
above.
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Osmosis
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Microbial ActionNaturally occurring
microorganisms act to breakdown the fertilizer
elements into more basic compounds. Soil
temperature affects the activity levels of
micro-organisms cold temperatures mean less
activity and less breakdown, while warmer
temperatures increase activity and breakdown.
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Hydrolysis

149
Physical Breakdown
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Single-Nutrient Fertilizers
Urea, CO(NH2)2, has a guaranteed analysis of
45-0-0 and costs 300 per ton. What is the cost
per pound of N?
First, calculate the pounds of N in the
fertilizer 2,000 lbs fertilizer x 0.45 900
lbs N.
Next, calculate the cost per pound of N 300 /
900 lbs N .33/lb N.
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Mixed Fertilizers

• diammonium phosphate (18-46-0) (DAP).

Assume DAP costs 320/ton. Calculate the cost of
the P2O5 in this fertilizer. Assume a cost per
pound of N and the cost of the P2O5 can be
calculated. Assume the cost of the N is the same
as 45-0-0 in the first example, or .33/lb N.
What is the cost of the P2O5 in 18-46-0?
First, calculate the pounds of N and P2O5 in a
ton of fertilizer 2,000 lbs fertilizer x 0.18 N
360 lbs N. 2,000 lbs fertilizer x 0.46 P 920
lbs P2O5.
.33/lb N x 360 lbs N 118.80.
320 - 118.80 201.20. Finally, the cost of
the P2O5 is 201.20 / 920 lbs .22/lb P2O5
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Nutrients
153
ORGANIC MATTERS!
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Soil Organic Matter Management
ORGANIC MATTERS!

• Increase additions of organic residues to soils
• Use varied sources of organic materials
• different CN ratios (the potatoes and meat)
• different types of organic matter a varied
  diet
• Decrease losses of organic matter from soils
• Use cover such as mulches (landscape) or
  top-dressing
• Avoid exposing to air (oxidation)

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Carbon Nitrogen Ratios
C N
Material

• Clover and alfalfa (early) 13 1
• Compost 15 1
• Poultry manure 18 1
• Dairy manure 25 1
• Alfalfa hay 20 1
• Horse manure 50 1
• Wheat, oat, or rye straw 80 1
• Oak leaves 90 1
• Fresh sawdust 400 1
• Newspaper 600 1

A ratio above 301 may cause problems with soil
nitrogen deficiency
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  Some CN ratios of cover crops.Young
rye plants
141Rye at mid-boot stage
401Hairy vetch
101 to 151Crimson clover
151Corn
stalks
601Sawdust
2501.
Cover crops with a cn ratio of 30 or higher
should be incorporated because it will likely
take nitrogen from the crop
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Other Cover Crops Summer Cover Crops Spring
Oats Sudax Sorghum Sudan Field peas Buckwheat
Fall Cover Crops Red Clover Crimson Clover
White clover Hairy Vetch Birds foot trefoil
Cereal grains Annual Ryegrass
http//agguide.agronomy.psu.edu/cm/sec10/table1-10
-5.cfm
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Formula
Area p x r2
p (pi) 3.14
r2 (radius squared) r x r
Area p x r2
r 6 ft
3.14 x (6 x 6)
3.14 x 36
113 ft2
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Formula
Area L (length) x W (width)
Example
Area L (length) x W (width)
L 75 ft, W 25 ft
Area 75 x 25
1875 ft2
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Formula
Area (b x h) ? 2
b length of base h length of height
Example
Area (b x h) ? 2
b 10 ft, h 5 ft
(10 x 5) ? 2
50 ? 2 25 ft2
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Oval
Formula
Area (W x L) x 0.8
Example
Area (W x L) x 0.8 W 10 ft , L 20 ft

(10 x 20) x 0.8
200 x 0.8 160 ft2
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Trapezoid
Formula
Area (A B) ? 2 x h
Example
Area (A B) ? 2 x h
A 20 ft, B 10 ft, h 5ft
(20 10) ? 2 x 5 30 ? 2 x 5
15 x 5 75 ft2
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Conversion Factors
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Conversion Factors
170

• MINERALIZATION AND IMMOBILIZATION
• NITROGEN FIXATION
  NITRIFICATION
• FATE OF NITRATE
  DENITRIFICATION

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Nitrogen (N)
Don't apply much more than is recommended. Excess
N makes plants more succulent and susceptible to
disease
Too little N reduces plant vigor and growth, plus
reduces the uptake of most other nutrients
Don't apply N to perennial plants after about
mid-September. Excess N in the fall can increase
the plants susceptibility to winter damage
Because nitrogen moves so fast in the soil it
should either be coated or applied in small
amounts on a more frequent basis.
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This dependence of early-spring growth on the
amount of nitrogen stored in the plant makes
stored nitrogen an important criterion for
determining nursery plant quality. It
also suggests that high nitrogen availability in
the soil or growing medium in the early spring
is not necessary for good plant growth. As the
season progresses, root uptake of nitrogen plays
an increasingly important role in satisfying the
nitrogen demands for growth. Nitrogen is rapidly
taken up from the soil or growing medium and used
for new growth during late spring and early
summer.
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Changing costs of three N fertilizer materials in
the southeastern United States
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Ten years ago, the U.S. was the world's largest
exporter of N fertilizer now we are the largest
importer. More than half the N our farmers now
use comes from places like Trinidad, Russia, and
the Persian Gulf rather than the Midwest or
Southeastern U.S. Why are we importing so much?
It all starts with production of anhydrous
ammonia (NH3), from which almost all familiar
solid N fertilizers like ammonium nitrate are
made. Ammonia is produced by combining N from the
air with hydrogen at high temperature and
pressure. The hydrogen is derived from natural
gas, which accounts for around 80 of the
production cost. Natural gas prices have been
destabilized by increased competition (electric
power generation, home heating) in the long term
and the Gulf of Mexico hurricanes in the short
term. This situation has put massive stress on
the fertilizer industry. Since natural gas is so
much cheaper in other parts of the world, ammonia
producers in the U.S. have not been able to
compete, so many of our domestic production
facilities have shut down or closed for good
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Phosphorous (P, P2O5)
If your soil test is Poor or Medium, you can
apply more phosphorus than is recommended.
However, a higher rate of application will
primarily increase the soil test and is not
likely to improve plant growth in the year it is
applied.
If your soil phosphorus is already high, it could
be interfering with the uptake of some
micronutrients like zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), or
others, and more will only make the problem
worse.
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Potassium (K, K2O), Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium
(Mg)
These three elements tend to compete with each
other for uptake by the plant. An excess of one
can tend to suppress the uptake of the others.
If the soil test for any of them is Poor or
Medium, you can apply a little more than is
recommended. However, a higher rate of
application will primarily increase the soil test
and is not likely to improve plant growth in the
year it is applied.
If one or more of them is already high, it could
be interfering with the uptake of the others, and
more will only make the problem worse
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Micronutrients (B, Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn)
Plants need very small amounts of any of the
micronutrients, and an excess of most of them can
be very toxic to plants. For example, when a
farmer's corn crop needs additional boron, a
typical recommendation is 1 lb./acre (43,560 sq.
ft.). Since the need is so small, and the risks
from excess application are high, homeowners are
advised to apply these nutrients as part of a
pre-mixed fertilizer that contains the very small
amounts needed.
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Amount of fertilizer to make 1 volume of stock
solution Desired conc in ppm x Dilution
factor            of element in fertilizer x C
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List all the variables Desired concentration
in ppm 200 Injector ratio 198 dilution
factor 98 Fertilizer analysis 20-10-20 20
N Conversion constant want to know number of
ounces of fertilizer to make 20 gallons of
concentrate Use 75 as C
200 ppm N x 98        20 N x 75
19600    1500
13.1 oz 20-10-20 /gal
x oz Fertilizer / stock tank 13.1 oz/gal x 20
gal 262 oz Or, divide by 16 oz/lb 16 lb 6
oz of 20-10-20 for 20 gal of stock solution
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Superphosphate (0-46-0) costs 280 per ton. What
is the cost per pound of P2O5?

• First, calculate the pounds of P2O5in the
  fertilizer 2,000 lbs fertilizer x 0.46 920
  lbs.

Next, calculate the cost per pound of P2O5
280 / 920 lbs .30/lb P2O5.
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Conversion

• Equation (1) P P2O5 / 2.29 Equation (2) P2O5
  2.29 x P Equation (3) K K2O / 1.21
  Equation (4) K2O 1.21 x K

191
Water
192
Relative Water Usage of Different Types of Plants
grass
shrubs and groundcovers
trees
Estimated typical water usage of varying plant
types in relative amounts the amount of water
needed by plants varies with location and
climate. generally, lawns use more water than
trees, and trees use more water than both shrubs
and groundcovers.
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Rate at Which Water Moves in the Soil
Soil Types Infiltration rates
(inches/hour)
Sand gt0.8 Sandy silty
soils 0.4 to 0.8 Loams 0.2 to 0.4 Clay
soils 0.04 to 0.2
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Water and Soil Moisture
Relationship between soil texture and water
availability
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Drainage
Tile drainage is used to lower the water table.
Tile line
Before Tiling
After Tiling
Source Western Fertilizer Handbook
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SOIL Put it All Together

• Physical nature of the soil
• Biological components
• Water
• Soil Chemistry
• Charged elements / molecules soil particles
• Cationic Exchange Capacity
• pH and nutrient availability
• Fertilizer

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SOIL Physical Properties
Soil Texture Relative Size Comparison of Soil
Particles
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Sample Soil Test Report Data

• CEC     ACIDITY(meq/100g) BASE
  SATURATION
• Ca Mg K Na
  TOTAL
• 5.0 1.0 50 20 5 5
  80

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Cation Exchange Capacity

• Any element with a positive charge is called a
  cation and, for agricultural purposes, it refers
  to the basic cations, calcium (Ca2), magnesium
  (Mg2), potassium (K1) and sodium (Na1) and the
  acidic cations, hydrogen (H1) and aluminum
  (Al3). The CEC refers to the total amount of
  these positively charged elements that a soil can
  hold. The cations are held on "exchange sites"
  where one cation can be exchanged for the same
  type or a different cation. The CEC is expressed
  in milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq/100g) of
  soil. The larger this number, the more cations
  the soil can hold. A clay soil will have a larger
  CEC than a sandy soil. In the Southeast, where we
  have highly weathered soils, the dominant clay
  type is kaolinite, which has very little capacity
  to hold cations compared to other clays. A
  typical CEC for a soil in the coastal plains
  region is about 2.0 meq/100g of soil, and the
  typical CEC for a soil in the piedmont is about
  5.0 meq/100g of soil. The CEC gives an indication
  of the soil's potential to hold plant nutrients.
  Increasing the organic matter content of any soil
  will help to increase the CEC since it also holds
  cations like the clays. Organic matter has a high
  CEC, but there is typically small amounts of
  organic matter in our soils.

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CEC Equation

• H, meq/100g soil 8 (8.00 - buffer pH)
• K, meq/100g soil lbs/acre extracted K 782
• Mg, meq/100g soil lbs/acre extracted Mg 240
• Ca, meq/100g soil lbs/acre extracted Ca 400
• Na, meq/100g soil lbs/acre extracted Na 460

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Percent Base Saturation

• Percent base saturation tells what percent of the
  exchange sites are occupied by the basic cations.
  If calcium has a base saturation value of 50 and
  magnesium has a base saturation value of 20 as
  shown above, then calcium occupies half of the
  total exchange sites (CEC) and magnesium occupies
  one-fifth of the total exchange sites (CEC). In
  this example, where the soil has a CEC of 5
  meq/100g, 2.5 meq/100g of the CEC is occupied by
  calcium and 1 meq/100g of the CEC is occupied by
  magnesium. If all the exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg,
  K and Na) total 100, then there is no
  exchangeable acidity.

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hypothetical zinc (Zn) chelate costs 6/gallon.
It has a density of 11.2 pounds/gallon and
contains 6 percent Zn. What is the cost per pound
of Zn?

• First, find the pounds of Zn/gallon of solution
  11.2 lbs Zn chelate/gallon x 0.06 Zn 0.67 lbs
  Zn/gallon

Next, calculate the cost of Zn 6/gallon x 1
gallon / 0.67 lbs Zn 8.96/lb Zn.
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General Guidelines for Irrigation Water Used in
Plant Production
EC µmho/cm 750 plugs 1,250 greenhouse
1,500 nursery 0-300
TDS ppm 480 plugs
800 greenhouse 960 nursery 0-192 (total
dissolved solids) (1 ppm 1 mg/l)
pH
possibly 8.0 upper 4.5 lower
5.2-6.8
Alkalinity ppm CaCO3 200 (90 for foliar
spotting) 0-60 plugs (1 meq/l CaCO3 50 mg/l
CaCO3) 0-100 greenhouse 0-140
nursery
Bicarbonate (HCO3 -) (EW 61) ppm meq/l
150 2.4 30-50 0.5-0.8