comp app

1
Computer Assignment

• Nameharsh kedia
• Std9
• DivA
• Roll no.18

2
Twisted pair cables
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• Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which
  two conductors (the forward and return conductors
  of a single circuit) are twisted together for the
  purposes of canceling out electromagnetic
  interference (EMI) from external sources for
  instance, electromagnetic radiation from
  Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables, and
  crosstalk between neighboring pairs. Explanation
• In balanced pair operation, the two wires carry
  equal and opposite signals and the destination
  detects the difference between the two. This is
  known as differential mode transmission. Noise
  sources introduce signals into the wires by
  coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend
  to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus
  produces a common-mode signal which is cancelled
  at the receiver when the difference signal is
  taken. This method starts to fail when the noise
  source is close to the signal wires the closer
  wire will couple with the noise more strongly and
  the common-mode rejection of the receiver will
  fail to eliminate it. This problem is especially
  apparent in telecommunication cables where pairs
  in the same cable lie next to each other for many
  miles. One pair can induce crosstalk in another
  and it is additive along the length of the cable.
  Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on
  each half twist the wire nearest to the
  noise-source is exchanged. Providing the
  interfering source remains uniform, or nearly so,
  over the distance of a single twist, the induced
  noise will remain common-mode. Differential
  signaling also reduces electromagnetic radiation
  from the cable, along with the attenuation that
  it causes.
• The twist rate (also called pitch of the twist,
  usually defined in twists per meter) makes up
  part of the specification for a given type of
  cable. Where nearby pairs have equal twist rates,
  the same conductors of the different pairs may
  repeatedly lie next to each other, partially
  undoing the benefits of differential mode. For
  this reason it is commonly specified that, at
  least for cables containing small numbers of
  pairs, the twist rates must differ.
• In contrast to FTP (foiled twisted pair) and STP
  (shielded twisted pair) cabling, UTP (unshielded
  twisted pair) cable is not surrounded by any
  shielding. It is the primary wire type for
  telephone usage and is very common for computer
  networking, especially as patch cables or
  temporary network connections due to the high
  flexibility of the cables.

6
Tcp/Ip
7

• IP encapsulation
• Data from an upper layer protocol is encapsulated
  as packets/datagrams (the terms are basically
  synonymous in IP). Circuit setup is not needed
  before a host may send packets to another host
  that it has previously not communicated with (a
  characteristic of packet-switched networks), thus
  IP is a connectionless protocol. This is in
  contrast to public switched telephone networks
  that require the setup of a circuit for each
  phone call (connection-oriented protocol).
• edit Services provided by IP
• Because of the abstraction provided by
  encapsulation, IP can be used over a
  heterogeneous network, i.e., a network connecting
  computers may consist of a combination of
  Ethernet, ATM, FDDI, Wi-Fi, token ring, or
  others. Each link layer implementation may have
  its own method of addressing (or possibly the
  complete lack of it), with a corresponding need
  to resolve IP addresses to data link addresses.
  This address resolution is handled by the Address
  Resolution Protocol (ARP) for IPv4 and Neighbor
  Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6.
• edit Reliability
• The design principles of the Internet protocols
  assume that the network infrastructure is
  inherently unreliable at any single network
  element or transmission medium and that it is
  dynamic in terms of availability of links and
  nodes. No central monitoring or performance
  measurement facility exists that tracks or
  maintains the state of the network. For the
  benefit of reducing network complexity, the
  intelligence in the network is purposely mostly
  located in the end nodes of each data
  transmission, cf. end-to-end principle. Routers
  in the transmission path simply forward packets
  to next known local gateway matching the routing
  prefix for the destination address.
• As a consequence of this design, the Internet
  Protocol only provides best effort delivery and
  its service can also be characterized as
  unreliable. In network architectural language it
  is a connection-less protocol, in contrast to
  so-called connection-oriented modes of
  transmission. The lack of reliability allows any
  of the following fault events to occur
• data corruption
• lost data packets
• duplicate arrival
• out-of-order packet delivery meaning, if packet
  'A' is sent before packet 'B', packet 'B' may
  arrive before packet 'A'. Since routing is
  dynamic and there is no memory in the network
  about the path of prior packets, it is possible
  that the first packet sent takes a longer path to
  its destination.
• The only assistance that the Internet Protocol
  provides in Version 4 (IPv4) is to ensure that
  the IP packet header is error-free through
  computation of a checksum at the routing nodes.
  This has the side-effect of discarding packets
  with bad headers on the spot. In this case no
  notification is required to be sent to either end
  node, although a facility exists in the Internet
  Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to do so.
• IPv6, on the other hand, has abandoned the use of
  IP header checksums for the benefit of rapid
  forwarding through routing elements in the
  network.
• The resolution or correction of any of these
  reliability issues is the responsibility of an
  upper layer protocol. For example, to ensure
  in-order delivery the upper layer may have to
  cache data until it can be passed to the
  application.
• In addition to issues of reliability, this
  dynamic nature and the diversity of the Internet
  and its components provide no guarantee that any
  particular path is actually capable of, or
  suitable for performing the data transmission
  requested, even if the path is available and
  reliable. One of the technical constraints is the
  size of data packets allowed on a given link. An
  application must assure that it uses proper
  transmission characteristics. Some of this
  responsibility lies also in the upper layer
  protocols between application and IP. Facilities
  exist to examine the maximum transmission unit
  (MTU) size of the local link, as well as for the
  entire projected path to the destination when
  using IPv6. The IPv4 internetworking layer has
  the capability to automatically fragment the
  original datagram into smaller units for
  transmission. In this case, IP does provide
  re-ordering of fragments delivered
  out-of-order.1
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example
  of a protocol that will adjust its segment size
  to be smaller than the MTU. User Datagram
  Protocol (UDP) and Internet Control Message
  Protocol (ICMP) disregard MTU size thereby
  forcing IP to fragment oversized datagrams.2

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• Perhaps the most complex aspects of IP are IP
  addressing and routing. Addressing refers to how
  end hosts become assigned IP addresses and how
  subnetworks of IP host addresses are divided and
  grouped together. IP routing is performed by all
  hosts, but most importantly by internetwork
  routers, which typically use either interior
  gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway
  protocols (EGPs) to help make IP datagram
  forwarding decisions across IP connected networks
• Version history
• In May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and
  Electronic Engineers (IEEE) published a paper
  entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network
  Interconnection."3 The paper's authors, Vint
  Cerf and Bob Kahn, described an internetworking
  protocol for sharing resources using
  packet-switching among the nodes. A central
  control component of this model was the
  "Transmission Control Program" (TCP) that
  incorporated both connection-oriented links and
  datagram services between hosts. The monolithic
  Transmission Control Program was later divided
  into a modular architecture consisting of the
  Transmission Control Protocol at the
  connection-oriented layer and the Internet
  Protocol at the internetworking (datagram) layer.
  The model became known informally as TCP/IP,
  although formally it was henceforth referenced as
  the Internet Protocol Suite.
• The Internet Protocol is one of the determining
  elements that define the Internet. The dominant
  internetworking protocol (Internet Layer) in use
  today is IPv4 with number 4 assigned as the
  formal protocol version number carried in every
  IP datagram. IPv4 is described in RFC 791 (1981).
• The successor to IPv4 is IPv6. Its most prominent
  modification from Version 4 is the addressing
  system. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses (c. 4 billion,
  or 4.3109, addresses) while IPv6 uses 128-bit
  addresses (c. 340 undecillion, or 3.41038
  addresses). Although adoption of IPv6 has been
  slow, as of June 2008, all United States
  government systems have demonstrated basic
  infrastructure support for IPv6 (if only at the
  backbone level).4
• Version numbers 0 through 3 were development
  versions of IPv4 used between 1977 and
  1979.citation needed Version number 5 was used
  by the Internet Stream Protocol (IST), an
  experimental stream protocol. Version numbers 6
  through 9 were proposed for various protocol
  models designed to replace IPv4 SIPP (Simple
  Internet Protocol Plus, known now as IPv6), TP/IX
  (RFC 1475), PIP (RFC 1621) and TUBA (TCP and UDP
  with Bigger Addresses, RFC 1347). Version number
  6 was eventually chosen as the official
  assignment for the successor Internet protocol,
  subsequently standardized as IPv6.
• A humorous Request for Comments that made an IPv9
  protocol center of its storyline was published on
  April 1, 1994 by the IETF.5 It was intended as
  an April Fool's Day joke. Other protocol
  proposals named "IPv9" and "IPv8" have also
  briefly surfaced, though these came with little
  or no support from the wider industry and
  academia.6

9
DiFfErEnT TyPeS oF MoDeM

• Different types of computer modemkeeps everyone
  connected, through the Internet technology,
  wherever they are. Lets see what a computer
  modem is.Modem, as a shortened form of
  MOdulatorDEModulator, allows the computer to
  convert data in useful information.
•  
• When it receives an analog data through a
  connection, it has to convert it in digital data
  to be usable by the computer. Likewise it
  reverses the action when it has to send data.
•  
• It is not so important, here, to know how modems
  do work but it is essential to make the
  difference between the different types of
  computer modem.
•  
• Internal computer modems. Some computers have an
  internal modem which can be a built-in modem or a
  PC card modem.
•  
• For the PC card modem, a PCI slot or even
  sometimes an ISA slot is required, depending on
  the available interface your motherboard uses to
  receive the modem.
• Internal comuter modems are used with Dial-Up
  Internet connection through a couple of RJ-11
  connection. Also called copper telephone lines,
  the RJ-11 allows computer to receive and send
  data as explained above.
• Internal comuter modems are usually 56K modems
  which mean that the modem is able to receive 56
  Kbits/s (56 kilobits or 56000 bits per second) of
  data. This kind of data transmission is called
  downstream transmission, came from a provider and
  transmitted over telephone lines. Commonly it is
  the standard bandwidth with telephones lines.
• However because Internet is a two-way system,
  data must also flow from the client to the
  (server) provider. For this purpose the computer
  can use 56K modems V90 to flow back 33.6 Kbits/s
  of upstream transmission rate. On the other hand
  the 56K modems V 92 is able to provide 48 Kbits/s
  of upstream transmission rate.
•  
• External modems. It is the second term we have to
  consider from different types of computer modem.
  An External modem can be used to the same purpose
  and in the same conditions as internal computer
  modem. However external modem is a small box that
  uses other kind of interfaces to be connected to
  the computer.
• It could be a serial modem, named thus because
  it uses the serial port to connect to the
  computer. Usually installed on the back of the
  computer, the serial port is an easy-to-install
  option for the external modem. The same small
  box, on the other hand, can be an USB modem which
  normally uses USB port usually placed on the back
  or in front of the computer.
•  

10

• As well as another type of external modem you may
  consider two important types of modem cable
  modem and DSL modem if you need high-speed
  internet services. All ISPs usually supply a
  specialized modem named digital modem in the
  broadband package.
•  
• Its important to notice that cablemodem has to
  connect to an Ethernet card, placed on the
  computer PCI slot to provide a broadband internet
  connection to the user. This is true if you opt
  to use Ethernet connection. However you won't
  need it if your option goes to use an USB
  connection.
•  
• Cable modem. The cable modem uses a coaxial cable
  television lines to provide a greater bandwidth
  than the dial-up comuter modem. An extremely fast
  access to the Web is providing by the cable modem
  with downstream transmission up to 38 Mbits/s and
  an upstream transmission up to 1 Mbits/s.
•  
• Unfortunately this transmission rate fluctuates
  with the number of users because of the shared
  bandwidth on which the cable technology is based.
•  
• DSL modem. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modem is
  exclusively used for connections from a telephone
  switching office to the user. This technology,
  available and frequently usable, split up into
  two main categories
• ADSLor Asymetric Digital Subcriber Line is used
  in North America and supports from 1.5 Mbits/s up
  to 9 Mbits/s of downstream transmission rate and
  up to 3 Mbits/s of upstream transmission rate.
• SDSL. SDSL or Symetric Digital Subcriber Line is
  used in Europe and has the same data rates for
  downstream and upstream transmission which is 128
  Kbits/s.
• One more thing
• Some modern modem include very interesting
  features which allow your computer to do
  important tasks such as auto-answer your incoming
  calls, do voice mail, sending and receiving fax
  and so forth.
• Don't waste your time! Go enjoy these various
  possibilities offered by the different types of
  computer modem.
• First of all external modem can be a
  Dial-Up modem but more expensive than the
  internal.
•  

11
WIFI MAX
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• Greater total valueWavion solutions are
  comprised of best-of-breed components including
  Wavion WBS base stations, CPEs, backhaul and
  billing provisioning systems. We, at Wavion,
  have spent significant time and effort, selecting
  the best component and optimizing the solution
  for each specific application.Short time to
  marketWavion solutions have been tested and
  certified by our engineering team to ensure
• Interoperability between the solution components
• Optimization for various applications in both
  urban and rural settings
• Resolution of any issues that arise prior to
  customer deployment
• The process ensures that you will be able to
  deploy your network quickly and effectively.
  Furthermore, you will get the ideal solution for
  your specific needs.Single point of
  contactWith Wavion end-to-end solution you have
  a single point of contact. We will take complete
  responsibility for the rapid deployment of your
  state-of-the-art wireless broadband solution.
• Base Stations Wavion WBS is a family of a
  carrier class, broadband wireless beamforming
  base stations that provide superior coverage and
  greater capacity.
• WBS-2400 Omni-directional base station with 6
  antenna array operating in 2.4 GHz
• WBS-2400 Sector Directional base station with 3
  antenna array in 120 sector operating in 2.4 GHz
  
• WBS-5800 Omni-directional base station with 6
  antennas array operating in 5.8 GHz
• WBS-5800 Sector Directional base station with 3
  antenna array in 120 sector operating in 5.8 GHz
  

14
E-mail protocols
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• E-mail protocols
• The Internet Message Access Protocol (commonly
  known as IMAP, and previously called Internet
  Mail Access Protocol, Interactive Mail Access
  Protocol (RFC 1064), and Interim Mail Access
  Protocol2) is an Application Layer Internet
  protocol that allows an e-mail client to access
  e-mail on a remote mail server. The current
  version, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1),
  is defined by RFC 3501.
• IMAP supports both on-line and off-line modes of
  operation. E-mail clients using IMAP generally
  leave messages on the server until the user
  explicitly deletes them. This and other
  characteristics of IMAP operation allow multiple
  clients to manage the same mailbox. Most e-mail
  clients support IMAP in addition to POP to
  retrieve messages however, fewer Internet
  service providers (ISPs) support IMAP.3 IMAP
  offers access to the mail store. Clients may
  store local copies of the messages, but these are
  considered to be a temporary cache.
• E-mail messages are sent to an e-mail server that
  stores messages in the recipient's email box. The
  user retrieves messages with an e-mail client
  that uses one of a number of e-mail retrieval
  protocols. Some clients and servers
  preferentially use vendor-specific, proprietary
  protocols, but most support the Internet standard
  protocols, SMTP for sending e-mail and POP and
  IMAP for retrieving e-mail, allowing
  interoperability with other servers and clients.
  For example, Microsoft's Outlook client uses a
  proprietary protocol to communicate with an
  Microsoft Exchange Server server as does IBM's
  Notes client when communicating with a Domino
  server, but all of these products also support
  POP, IMAP, and outgoing SMTP. Support for the
  Internet standard protocols allows many e-mail
  clients such as Pegasus Mail or Mozilla
  Thunderbird (see comparison of e-mail clients) to
  access these servers, and allows the clients to
  be used with other servers (see list of mail
  servers).
• History
• IMAP was designed by Mark Crispin in 1986 as a
  remote mailbox protocol, in contrast to the
  widely used POP, a protocol for retrieving the
  contents of a mailbox.4
• Original IMAP
• The original Interim Mail Access Protocol was
  implemented as a Xerox Lisp machine client and a
  TOPS-20 server.
• No copies of the original interim protocol
  specification or its software exist. Although
  some of its commands and responses were similar
  to IMAP2, the interim protocol lacked
  command/response tagging and thus its syntax was
  incompatible with all other versions of IMAP.
• IMAP2
• The interim protocol was quickly replaced by the
  Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP2), defined
  in RFC 1064 and later updated by RFC 1176. IMAP2
  introduced command/response tagging and was the
  first publicly distributed version.
• IMAP2bis
• With the advent of MIME, IMAP2 was extended to
  support MIME body structures and add mailbox
  management functionality (create, delete, rename,
  message upload) that was absent in IMAP2. This
  experimental revision was called IMAP2bis its
  specification was never published in non-draft
  form. Early versions of Pine were widely
  distributed with IMAP2bis support (Pine 4.00 and
  later supports IMAP4rev1).
• IMAP4
• An IMAP Working Group formed in the IETF in the
  early 1990s and took over responsibility for the
  IMAP2bis design. The IMAP WG decided to rename
  IMAP2bis to IMAP4 to avoid confusion with a
  competing IMAP3 proposal from another group that
  never got off the ground.citation needed The
  expansion of the IMAP acronym also changed to the
  Internet Message Access Protocol.
• Some design flaws in the original IMAP4 (defined
  by RFC 1730) that came out in implementation
  experience led to its revision and replacement by
  IMAP4rev1 two years later. There were very few
  IMAP4 client or server implementations based on
  RFC 1730 due to its short lifetime.

16

• IMAP4rev1
• The current version of IMAP since 1996, IMAP
  version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by
  RFC 3501 which revised the earlier RFC 2060.
• IMAP4rev1 is backwards compatible with IMAP2 and
  IMAP2bis and is largely backwards compatible
  with IMAP4. However, the older versions are
  either extinct or nearly so.
• Unlike many older Internet protocols, IMAP
  natively supports encrypted login mechanisms.
  While IMAP servers can be configured to permit
  plain-text transmission of passwords, RFC 3501
  mandates support for authentication methods which
  avoid this vulnerability. It is possible to
  encrypt IMAP traffic using Transport Layer
  Security (SSL), either by tunneling IMAP
  communications over SSL on port 993, or by
  issuing the STARTTLS command within an
  established IMAP session (see RFC 2595).
• Advantages over POP
• Connected and disconnected modes of operation
• When using POP, clients typically connect to the
  e-mail server briefly, only as long as it takes
  to download new messages. When using IMAP4,
  clients often stay connected as long as the user
  interface is active and download message content
  on demand. For users with many or large messages,
  this IMAP4 usage pattern can result in faster
  response times.
• Multiple clients simultaneously connected to the
  same mailbox
• The POP protocol requires the currently connected
  client to be the only client connected to the
  mailbox. In contrast, the IMAP protocol
  specifically allows simultaneous access by
  multiple clients and provides mechanisms for
  clients to detect changes made to the mailbox by
  other, concurrently connected, clients.
• Access to MIME message parts and partial fetch
• Nearly all Internet e-mail is transmitted in MIME
  format, allowing messages to have a tree
  structure where the leaf nodes are any of a
  variety of single part content types and the
  non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of multipart
  types. The IMAP4 protocol allows clients to
  separately retrieve any of the individual MIME
  parts and also to retrieve portions of either
  individual parts or the entire message. These
  mechanisms allow clients to retrieve the text
  portion of a message without retrieving attached
  files or to stream content as it is being fetched.

17

• Message state information
• Through the use of flags defined in the IMAP4
  protocol, clients can keep track of message
  state for example, whether or not the message
  has been read, replied to, or deleted. These
  flags are stored on the server, so different
  clients accessing the same mailbox at different
  times can detect state changes made by other
  clients. POP provides no mechanism for clients to
  store such state information on the server so if
  a single user accesses a mailbox with two
  different POP clients, state informationsuch as
  whether a message has been accessedcannot be
  synchronized between the clients. The IMAP4
  protocol supports both pre-defined system flags
  and client defined keywords. System flags
  indicate state information such as whether a
  message has been read. Keywords, which are not
  supported by all IMAP servers, allow messages to
  be given one or more tags whose meaning is up to
  the client. Adding user created tags to messages
  is an operation supported by some web-based email
  services, such as Gmail.
• Multiple mailboxes on the server
• IMAP4 clients can create, rename, and/or delete
  mailboxes (usually presented to the user as
  folders) on the server, and move messages between
  mailboxes. Multiple mailbox support also allows
  servers to provide access to shared and public
  folders.
• Server-side searches
• IMAP4 provides a mechanism for a client to ask
  the server to search for messages meeting a
  variety of criteria. This mechanism avoids
  requiring clients to download every message in
  the mailbox in order to perform these searches.
• Built-in extension mechanism
• Reflecting the experience of earlier Internet
  protocols, IMAP4 defines an explicit mechanism by
  which it may be extended. Many extensions to the
  base protocol have been proposed and are in
  common use. IMAP2bis did not have an extension
  mechanism, and POP now has one defined by RFC
  2449.
• Disadvantages of IMAP
• While IMAP remedies many of the shortcomings of
  POP, this inherently introduces additional
  complexity. Much of this complexity (e.g.,
  multiple clients accessing the same mailbox at
  the same time) is compensated for by server-side
  workarounds such as maildir or database backends.
• Unless the mail store and searching algorithms on
  the server are carefully implemented, a client
  can potentially consume large amounts of server
  resources when searching massive mailboxes.
• IMAP4 clients need to maintain a TCP/IP
  connection to the IMAP server in order to be
  notified of the arrival of new mail. Notification
  of mail arrival is done through in-band
  signaling, which contributes to the complexity of
  client-side IMAP protocol handling somewhat5. A
  private proposal, push IMAP, would extend IMAP to
  implement push e-mail by sending the entire
  message instead of just a notification. However,
  push IMAP has not been generally accepted and
  current IETF work has addressed the problem in
  other ways (see the Lemonade Profile for more
  information).
• Unlike some proprietary protocols which combine
  sending and retrieval operations, sending a
  message and saving a copy in a server-side folder
  with a base-level IMAP client requires
  transmitting the message content twice, once to
  SMTP for delivery and a second time to IMAP to
  store in a sent mail folder. This is remedied by
  a set of extensions defined by the IETF LEMONADE
  Working Group for mobile devices URLAUTH (RFC
  4467) and CATENATE (RFC 4469) in IMAP and BURL
  (RFC 4468) in SMTP-SUBMISSION. POP servers don't
  support server-side folders so clients have no
  choice but to store sent items on the client.
  Many IMAP clients can be configured to store sent
  mail in a client-side folder, or to BCC oneself
  and then filter the incoming mail instead of
  saving a copy in a folder directly. In addition
  to the LEMONADE "trio", Courier Mail Server
  offers a non-standard method of sending using
  IMAP by copying an outgoing message to a
  dedicated outbox folder.

18
How does a search enginework???????

• Search Engines per definition are information
  retrieval system designed to help find
  information stored on a computer system.
• There are many types of search engines but we
  would limit our discussion to web search engines
  which search for information on world wide web.
• Search engines were begin with an idea to ease
  the information finding on the internet. No body
  had an idea at that time the way it will turn
  internet business.
• A search engine consist of three parts
• First part is the spider which is also called the
  crawler or bot. This spider part visits a web
  page, reads it, and then follows links to other
  pages within the site. This process is often
  referred to as crawling or spidering.
• Crawling of a website is done on a very regular
  basis, frequency of which is determined by the
  frequency with which website adds the content. It
  can vary from once in a month to several times in
  a day.
• The spiders visit a website following links from
  other website or website submission it received.
• The content that spider find is sent to its
  database or index as it is popularly known. This
  index is like a huge book that contains a copy of
  web page or cache, that the spider finds out.
  This constitutes second part of a search engine.
• It also stores the structure and the way pages
  are linked to each other. This information would
  be updated every time there is a change in
  content or linking.
• There could be interval between spidering and
  indexing which varies from site to site and
  engine to engine. But until indexed, the web page
  would not be available for the search terms.
• Third part of a search engine is search engine
  software that works behind the interface when we
  use a search engine. This software will sift
  through the trillions of indexed pages to match
  the search query that user has asked. The pages
  are ranked by search engines and the search
  results are based on this ranking and relevance
  to search term. This is how a search engine
  determines what order shall be listed for a
  particular search.
• Next time you search,just imagine behind the
  scene activity.

19
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