Military History Chapter 21 Vietnam War

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Military HistoryChapter 21Vietnam War
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Vietnam War- Strategic Overview

• Vietnam was longest US combat deployment (so
  far)
• US combat units fought hostile actions (1965-72)
• SOF also involved before after that (1961-73)
• Military advisor role started in 1959
• But no fixed date of start of US involvement
• No Lexington Concord or Pearl Harbor
• or New York Trade Center Towers
• US entered left incrementally
• In series of incremental steps gt 1950s-1970s
• Successive US Administrations actively
  participated in the War
• From Truman to Nixon
• All tried to save Vietnam from Communist
  take-over (as part of Containment Policy)
• All would ultimately fail

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Lay of the Land
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Brief Historical Outline

• Truman (May 1950)gt authorized Mil to aid
  Frenchgt
• preserve post-WW2 French Indochina colonies
  (image)
• Ike continued US support, even following Dien
  Bien Phu
• Aim build Vn Nation out of diverse political
  factions
• After French defeat, US took control of bad
  situation
• Deployed military advisors to build SVNs
  military
• Tasked CIA to conduct psychological war against
  NVN
• JFK tripled aid to SVN increased military
  advisors
• Early 61 secretly deployed 400 SF 30 Navy
  SEALs
• Tasked to advise ARVN SVN Navy CI tactics
  techniques
• Covert direct action against North Vietnam (Oplan
  34A) VC in South
• By Nov 63 16,300 advisors operate thru-out N/S
  Vietnam

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Johnsons War

• After JFKs assassination, LBJ took over war
• Determined not to lose Vietnam like Truman
  lost China
• Embarked on a limited war strategy to convince
  NVN to cease infiltration of South Vietnam
• After Tonkin Gulf incident its resolution in
  Aug 1964
• LBJ secured Congress support (as equivalent of
  war)
• Authorized by resolution to take all necessary
  actions
• Following his 1964 re-election, LBJ did just that
• Result US military commitment intensified
  incrementally
• LBJ personally directed sustained bombing of
  targets in NVN
• Mar 65gt Rolling Thunder begangt would last
  until 31Oct68
• US also deployed first combat units (USMC) in
  March 1965
• US took over war from 65-69 when force levels
  peak _at_ 543K

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Statistics Vietnam Syndrome

• Statistic totals 2.7M served in Vietnam gt 1.6
  in combat
• 58K KIA 300,000 WIA, approx 2500 remain MIA
• US spent between 140B to 175B on the war
• American outlook deeply influenced by Vietnam
  War
• Future Presidential Foreign Policy decisions
  affected as result
• Vietnam syndrome hovered always in background
  to present
• Not since Civil War has a conflict divided US
  society so
• Americas first war ever lost
• Humiliating political defeat for USG institutions
• Especially for the US military- long time to
  recover
• VN vets came home as Nation tried to forget
  move on
• VN Vets were ignored at best blamed for war at
  worst

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Vietnams History of Peoples War

• Vietnam has had a long tradition of war
  against outsiders
• rebellion against China the Trung sisters
• Later Trieu Au would lead another revolt in 248
  AD
• 10th century defeated Chinas Fleet won
  independence
• 13th century Vietnam repulsed Kublai Khan 3
  times
• In process became experts in employing GW gt
• Stressed protracted war to wear a superior
  military power down
• Raid ambush tactics on the enemys
  over-extended LOCs
• Outlined in Daos Essential Summary of Military
  Arts
• Strategy drew enemy into protracted campaign to
  wear him down
• (Also applied these techniques to 1st 2nd
  Indo-China wars)

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Historical Experience with Outside Threats

• Vietnams defeat of Mongols Chinesegt
• Now key part of Vietnams martial tradition
  history
• i.e. struggle resistance against superior
  outside forces
• All became part of Vietnams military heritage
• (In addition to Vietnams civil war that soon
  followed)
• French involvement came in late 1850s
• Vn persecuted Fr Euro missionaries their
  converts
• Gradually (late 1800s) gt Fr establish expand
  their colonies
• French then expanded throughout all of Indo-China
  gt
• Also suppressed Vietnams civil war in process

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On Protracted War An Overview

• Maos Guerilla War model
• On Protracted War
• Vietnam drew heavily on Maos model for war
• Model instructed followers to proceed by 3
  stages
• 1st - defensive stage
• survive, establish base gain peoples support
• conduct hit run raids ambush of soft targets
• 2nd - equilibrium
• gradually expand offensive campaigns gt
• stage larger battles of a more conventional
  nature
• 3rd - Counter-Offensive
• Incorporate conventional military ops with
  guerilla warfare
• Then ramp up to full scale conventional war
  (when ready)

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First Indo-China War

• WW2 Japan occupied controlled
  Vietnam since 1940
• Vietnamese allied with China to fight Japanese
  (GW)
• Following Japans defeat, Ho Chi Minh
  asserted his leadership
• Led coalition of Communists Nationalists
• Declared Vietnam independence on 2Sept45
• Began talks with French
• But both sides failed to agree on basic strategic
  aims
• Nov46gt Viet Minh attacked French garrisons gt
• 1st Indochina war began gt would last 8 yrs
  (1946-54)

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Escalation to Major Battle

• Jan48 Viet Minh begin 2nd stage
• Expand military operations
• Conduct bigger battles against French
• Meanwhile (late 49)gt China became Communist
  state under Mao
• Resultgt China provides Vietnam with economic
  political support
• Also sanctuaries within Chinas sovereign
  territory
• 1951 Vietnam launched stage 3 prematurely
• Result suffers major conventional defeat
• Temporary set back for Viet Minh
• 1953 at Chinas insistence Vn lures French
  Commander (Navarre) into
• Plain of Reeds gt near a place called (?)
• ?_______ __________ ____________

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Dien Bien Phu (Nov53-May54)

• Gen Navarre established several strong French
  Firebases on surrounding hills near main base
• All manned by paratroops Fr Foreign Legion
• supplied thru airstrip by airlift
• 1954 Chinese press Vietnamese to act decisively
• Giap orders arty/ammo towed into surrounding mtns
• Complete surprise (operational and tactical
  surprise)
• Viet Minh bombard French outposts from mountain
  sites
• Paratroops forced to abandon outposts 1 by 1 gt
• 13Mar54 Beatrice falls within hours of attack
• Gabrielle Anne Marie overrun during next 2 days
• Impact denied French airfield- key to French
  defense
• Reinforcement re-supply (also Fr arty
  suppressed)

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Dien Bien Phu (final assault)

• Remaining outposts must be re-supplied by airdrop
  (men/supplies)
• Drops inaccurate (high altitude drops due to Vn
  AAA)
• French situation now desperate
• French government requests US help
• Ike refuses to send US troops or tactical Nukes
• Many French Foreign Legion troops desert
• Hide in caves along Nam Yum scavenge for food
• Paratroopers left to fight alone until the end
• 7 May54 Last French position overrun
• Fr survivors marched into captivity humiliation
• At on going Peace talks in Geneva
• French must now accept distasteful political
  terms
• Unfavorable terms a direct result of French
  tactical defeat
• US must now take up containment directly

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Expanded US involvement

• By 54 US paying close to 80 of Wars cost
• French viewed as containing communism in Asia
• Ike refused to sign Geneva Accords
• Rejects VNs temporary 2 year partition at 17th
  parallel
• Wary of nation wide elections to determine fate
  in 1956
• Well aware of who is most likely to win (who?)
• Instead US used 2 yr time to back separate
  non-communist Government below 17th parallel
• Government in South to be led by who?
• ?________ ______ ________- a Catholic
• What is the faith of Vietnam majority?
• ?_________________
• 1956 elections overwhelmingly
  favor Ho Chi Minh
• Vote results ignored by US new RVN Gov

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Second Indochina War

• Following South Vietnam refusal to allow free
  electiongt
• Ho Chi Minh began modernization of his forces
• Prepares to deploy NVN advisors south
• Begins armed struggle in South Vietnam (SVN)
• Diem starts search to rout out Viet Minh south in
  1956
• Included all viewed as opposed to his rule
• i.e. All non-Catholics minorities alike
• By 57 Viet Minh in South close
  to all but eliminated
• Result Viet Minh launched major rebellion
  against Diems Government
• Initiate guerilla warfare, intelligence ops,
  propaganda
• Focus develop support base in rural villages
• Diems harsh policies facilitate Viet Minh efforts

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Violence Escalates

• Raids assassinations escalate between 1958 gt
  1960
• 1958 700 gov. officials killed
• 1960 2500 killed
• By 1960 National
  Liberation Front (NLF) established
• (Political arm of Viet Minh rebellion)
• By Dec63 PAVN (NVA) escalated
  infiltration/support to Viet Minh
• Ho Chi Minh Trail established
• NVN sends men supplies south
• By 1965 full blown insurgency was established in
  SVN
• US concludes Diems regime will fall without
  direct military support

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NLFs War Aims Strategy

• Political Aim
• Unite South under NVN government of Ho Chi Minh
• NLF Grand Strategy
• Combine political military aspects of struggle
• Undermine SVN political military positions
• Rally people popular support for NLF cause
• Political Tactics
• Conduct Agitprop
• Tactical focus village level
• Establish a tight political military structure
• By63 NLF was successful gt
• Signed up 300K supporters in countryside

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NLF Military Strategy Tactics

• Tactics formulated to serve strategic political
  ends
• 1st stage hit run raids just survive
• Targets selected for maximum psychological impact
• Assassination target most effective most
  despised
• Mayors, village chiefs, teachers
• Ambush ARVN troops government strategic Hamlets
• Sabotage commercial transport infrastructure
• Strategic Objective
• Provoke government to react w/repressive actions
• Aim alienate the very people government is
  suppose to protect
• Demonstrate to people ineffectiveness of Gov
  efforts

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Chinese Tactical Model

• By65 PAVN provided direct support to SVN
  insurgents
• Employed Chinese model, tactics, techniques
• Totaled 500K troops with 500K in reserve
• Divisions comprised 10K Troops
• Used 7.62 AK-47s w/3-5 grenades each member
• 3 infantry regiments in South
• Weapons company attached 60/82 mm mortars
• 57/75mm recoilless rifles, RPGs Machine Guns
• Train extensively in night ops effective
  concealment
• Small unit tactics employing stealth
• Meticulous planning full scale rehearsals
• Detailed withdrawal plans back-up contingencies
• Preposition supplies ammo escape routes

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Tactical Focus

• Bottom line
• a well respected opponent
• NVA soldier was good, dedicated,
• Well trained highly motivated troop
• Extensive training battlefield prep
• NVA tactics doctrines focus
• Raid ambushgt (became experts at)
• Small unit mobility to minimize US technology
• Extreme close contact
• (often at Danger Close ranges)
• Concentrate on weak point, overwhelm encircle
• Then quickly withdraw gt rarely held territory
• Key Lesson Learned
• Never follow a blood trail why?
  ?_________________

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US Counter Insurgency (CI) Limited War

• US foreign policy (FP) focused on Containment
• Halt communist expansion directed from Moscow
• Main focus of US FP throughout Cold War (CW)
• Vietnam War viewed as just another communist
  threat of attempted expansion
• Specific attempt at communist expansion in SE
  Asia
• Ho Chi Minh NVN inspired by Moscow Beijing
• During60sgt Vietnam became test
  case for JFKs CI doctrine
• JFK campaigned to replace
  
  Ikes massive retaliationgt
• Replacement National Security Strategy?

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Result Flexible Response

• JFK placed major emphasis on CI
• To counter Maos guerilla warfare in SE Asia
• Carried out by SOF advisors
• 400 SF 30 SEALs May 1961
• 16,300 military advisors by Nov 1963
• Also JFK ordered covert actions against NVN
• (OPLAN 34A) by SOG Teams
• CI Strategy against NLF
• Build-up of military support to ARVN
• APCs, CV air support, Helos, TACAIR
• SF advisors conducted training civic action
• US Helo support to ARVN
• Infiltration/extraction Medivac
• Direct support, to include advising SVN SOF
  teams into enemy held areas

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Strategic Hamlet Program

• Another attempt to protect people from insurgents
  by isolating them
• Theory serve as instrument of social reform
  security
• Attract the people to SVN gov programs
• Convince peasant SVN gov better than NLF
• Objective relegate insurgents to outlaw status
• Lose support of masses gt force revised NLF aims
• Return insurgent to Survival mode (stage 1)
• Reality program failed in both concept
  execution
• Dislocated peasants from village bred resentment
• SVN Government (not NLF) viewed as bad guy
• Poor security gt vulnerable villages easy to
  overrun

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Factors in Failure

• Result opposite of desired government objective
• Peoples discontent rose while security safety
  fell
• Atrocious execution by Nhu alienated peasants
• Another factor conventional military mindset
• Conventional US Army leaders resisted CI
• Did not support CI concept
• Conflict in philosophies of war Clausewitz vs.
  Sun Tzu
• Conventional military preferred conventional
  methods
• Bigger better mindset employing modern weapons
• Even though jungle warfare very tough environment
• Conventional infantry armor profile ineffective
• Tactical surprise unlikely operational surprise
  hard

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Battle of Ap Bac (2 Jan 1963)

• LTC John Paul Vann
• Pressed IV Corps tactical zone Cmdr MG Cao, Col
  Dam, Cmdr of 7th ARVN, to attack 3
  VC radio companies (350 men)
  near hamlet of Ap Bac
• Located 65 KM southwest of Saigon in the Mekong
  Delta
• Plan 3 pronged pincer attack from different
  directions by 3 Battalions of 7th Infantry,
• Supported by regional units, 13 APCs
  (3500 men), ABN US Helos (CH-21s UH-1s)
• Objective Surprise overwhelm enemy with numbers

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Execution

• Execution badly flawed
• ARVN commander delayed attack too long
• Allowed enemy to discover Cmdrs intent
• Time to prepare defense to receive attack
• No tactical surprise gt
• First sign of resistance ARVN froze
• 1 prong of offense refused to even attack
• Remaining units purposely failed to block enemys
  escape
• Result numerous ARVN casualties (friendly fire)
• 61 KIA 100 WIA
• Viet Cong slip away undetected (3 KIA)
• Victory claimed anyway (why?)
• Rationale conventionally- held ground
• ARVN performance does not bold well for future

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Tonkin Gulf Incident

• SVN maritime sea commandos advisors
• Conduct sea-borne raids on NVN radar
• Raids conducted in/around Tonkin gulf op area
• Objective
• Force NVN to light off radars ELINT
• Permit US DDs w/special ELINT collection
• NVN Response
• Torpedo boats attack SVN commandos
• SOF insertion craft (NASTIES) in vicinity
• NVN craft see US DD Maddox
  engage
• Result 3 enemy PT sunk or damaged
• 2 days later- NVN PT appear to fire on US DDs
• USS Maddox Turner Joy call for CV air CAS
• Who find nothing

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Tonkin Gulf Resolution

• Capt of USS Maddox not sure second
  NVN attack actually occurred, but...
• Files report to CINCPAC via chain of command
• LBJ sees opportunity to exploit NVN attack
• Applies much political pressure to confirm attack
• Meanwhilegt Admin prepared draft resolution for
  Congress
• Resolved for President to take all action
  necessary
• Protect US forces its allies
• While Navy still try to figure out what really
  occurred
• LBJ exploits incident Tonkin Gulf Resolution
• Passed unanimously by House all but 2 in Senate
• (Just as administration drafted it) gt
  significance?
• Future impact on US involvement?

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NLF Threat Grows

• By 1965 gt NLF secured Mekong Delta (Map) gt
• Appeared to have gained both
  momentum initiative, especially in the Delta
• Appeared to US that SVN Gov
  about to fail
• US concluded it must send massive assistance to
  prevent its collapse
• Specially configured armored
  landing craft were deployed

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Operation Rolling Thunder (Mar65- Nov68)

• Mar 65 (after LBJ safely re-elected)gt US
  strikes
• Launched massive strategic bombing of North
• Longest sustained air bombing campaign in US
  history
• Targets primarily along northern areas of DMZ
• Included bridges, railheads, logistic supply
  dumps
• Also re-supply routes along Ho Chi Minh Trail

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Major US Ground Combat Introduced

• LBJ also deployed USMC to DaNang in late July65
• Two Battalion Landing Teams waded
  ashore
• Prepare to conduct active forward defense
  search destroy ops
• From then on, US begins to take direct control
  of war gt
• Major ground combat key battles conducted by US
• More US combat units deploy
• ARVN relegated primarily to garrison defense
  duties as the US directly takes over the War

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Theory Practice of Limited War

• Flexible Response (review)
• Tailored action required only to meet political
  aim
• Avoids dilemma of massive retaliation as only
  option
• Result military instruments limited to minimum
  needed to send the enemy a message
• Target hit to modify enemys behavior (political
  end)
• Limited War theories civilian theorists
• Flexible Response provided basis of limited war
  theories
• Ltd War Theories provide set of broad guidelines
• Focused on attaining US political objectives
• Military considerations not taken into account
• Craft military response to send clear signal to
  enemy
• Convey political intent to attain desired enemy
  response

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Theory vs. Reality

• Result in practice
• Political considerations dominated military
  actions
• Military responses limited to minimum required
• Civilian leadership prevalent thru-out all
  operations
• LBJ selected many of the bomb targets personally
• Limited geographic battle areas of operations
• BDA unimportant gtonly political message sent is
  central
• Theorys Flaw?
• Reality of war - military factors do count
• Assumption regarding enemys response
  frictions role?
• Precision of message sent how it is received
  interpreted
• How the enemy will respond remains uncertain
• Gradual escalation in attempt to get desired
  response flawed

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Modern Hi-tech Military Advances

• Flexible Response strategy gt conventional forces
• SECDEF McNamara modernized US forces
• Established Brush War capability (for Vietnam)
• USAF USN build-up
• WWII BBs refitted updated
• CV/CVN on Yankee Station in Tokin Gulf launch
  F-4/A-4 strikes
• B-52 (Guam) F105/F-4 (Thailand) Rolling Thunder

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Weapons Technology Advances

• High Tech Equipment
• Radar units small portable developed
• Sniffers attached to skids of UH-1s to detect
  infiltrators odors
• Sensors passive transmitters alert SF teams
• IBM computers predict enemy movements
• Puff (AC-47 gunships)
• AFSOC AC-130 Specter Gunships
• provide devastating fire support

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Troops, Weapons, Equipment

• Troops best ever trained equipped to date
• 1 Million men combat ready divisions expand11
  to 16
• Airlift equipment stockpiles expanded
• Army reorganization
• Task oriented for specific jobs
• Direct ground support weapons equipment
• Armor Personnel Carriers
• Weapon advances (M-60, M-16, Stoner LMG, M-79)
• Helo its role UH-1, Cobra, CH-47, 1st Air
  Cavalry

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Next Military History Chapter 21b
Vietnam War (to be continued)
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Back-up Slides
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US Combat Units Direct Ground Operations

• US also deployed first full combat units in March
  1965
• 3500 USMCs land on DaNang beaches for combat ops
• Key US threshold passed
• (Many to follow incrementally)
• From then until April 1969, US commitment
  gradually increased
• US ground troop levels combat units grew
  steadily
• US combat actions rose incrementally for next 4
  yrs
• Operation Starlite was typical
• From 65-69 US took over most fighting from ARVN
• US troop levels peaked at 543,400 troops by early
  1969

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Conflicting post-War Analysis

• Several hard lessons were learned as a result of
  Vietnam
• For somegt we simply backed the wrong horse
• US Military power support never be enough
  regardlessgt
• Military pwr couldnt prop up RVNs corrupt
  failed regime
• Local revolutionary war fought for nationalistic
  political aims
• Therefore US caught in middle of bitter civil war
• For others war too hard to win under political
  constraints
• War considered integral part of global Cold War
  threat
• Key political concern for LBJ administration
  avoid escalation
• Both in intensity of fighting geographic region
• Result US attempted to fight limited
  conventional war
• Without a coherent realistic operational
  strategy
• While applying separate poorly chosen tactics to
  support it

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Serious Strategic Disconnect

• US approach to war appeared to have serious
  disconnects
• Political Aims were unrealistic given military
  constraints
• Operational Strategy poorly matched to those
  strategic aims
• Tactics employed served a failing strategy
• Result Tactical success served poor operational
  strategy
• Which in turn attempted to achieve Unrealistic
  strategic aims gt
• Which ultimately resulted in political failure at
  the end of the day
• Political decisions makers failed to realize
  until too late
• That superior American military power cant make
  up for what?
• American peoples lack of political will to
  continue war indefinitely!
• These failures would affect many in different
  ways
• Including foreign policy decisions taken
  following the Cold War