Title: Digital Games and Motivation: Implications for Instructional Design
1Digital Games and Motivation Implications
forInstructional Design
- Brett Bixler
- Penn State University
2Who am I?
- Brett Bixler
- Lead Instructional Designer
- Penn State University
- Manager, Instructional Support and Research,
Education Technology Services - 23 years working w/ed. tech.
3Where do I Work?
- Education Technology Services
- Part of Teaching and Learning with Technology
- Part of Information Technology Services (ITS)
4Why am I Interested in Games?
- Motivation is a key to learning.
- Motivated people will learn.
- Software in the late 80s - early 90s had
game-like elements.
5A Day in the Life
6S.C.O.R.E.
7Todays Format
- What is a Game?
- Group Fun
- Motivational Theories Discussion
- More Group Fun
- Discussion and Wrap-up
8What is a Game?
- Voluntary Participation
- Rules
- Verify appropriateness of strategies
- Goals
- Challenge - You must have a stake in thye
outcome! - Limit usable strategies
- Defined Outcome(s)
9What is a Game? - pt. 2
- Feedback
- Used to measure progress against goal(s)
- Interactions
- Conflict (overt or covert)
- Competition (with the game, others, or self)
- Opposition (with the game, others, or self)
10What is a Game? - pt. 3
- Representation
- What the game is about
- An abstracted story of reality
- Separation from Reality
- A safe environment consequences are not
externalized - May contain fantasy or "impossible" elements
11Types of Games
- Action
- Fighting
- First-person shooter (Doom)
- Role-playing
- Individual (Neverwinter Nights)
- Massively Multiplayer Online Games (EverQuest,
World of Warcraft)
12Doom - 1st Person Shooter
13007 - 1st Person Shooter
14007 - 1st Person Shooter
15EverQuest - MMORPG
16EverQuest - MMORPG
17Types of Games - pt. 2
- Adventure
- Puzzles (Myst)
- Simulators
- Flight (MS Flight Simulator)
- Racing
- Sports
- Military (America's Army)
- Economic (Tycoon Series)
- City-building Games (SimCity)
18Sega Tennis
19Sega Tennis
20Types of Games - pt. 3
- Strategy
- Strategy Wargames
- Real-time strategy and turn-based strategy games
(Civilization) - Real-time tactical and turn-based tactical games
(Pirates!) - God Games (Sims)
- Puzzle Games (Sudoku)
21Pirates!
22Pirates!
23Genres of Games
- Arcade - Asteroids
- Maze PacMan
- Music Dance Dance Revolution
- Party - Dance Dance Revolution
- Pinball
- Platform Donkey Kong, Lemmings
- Stealth - 007
- Survival horror Resident Evil
- Traditional Board and Card Games
- Vehicular combat Interstate '82
24Group Fun, Part 1
- Break into groups of 3-4.
- Read the handout.
- Make a list of how you would add motivational
elements to this rough outline. - 10 minutes.
25What is Motivation?
- Many definitions exist.
- Defining it is an elusive process, as difficult
to do as grasping a slippery fish in a dark cave. - Heres the one I like
- The term motivation in psychology is a global
concept for a variety of processes and effects
whose common core is the realization that an
organism selects a particular behavior because of
expected consequences, and then implements it
with some measure of energy, along a particular
path. (Heckhausen, 1991, p. 9).
26More on Defining Motivation
- Two basic definitions.
- Psysiological
- Observable facts
- measurable bodily functions. The term energized
is used (Travers, 1982). - Psychological
- Do we have cognitive sources of motivation?
- Psychogenic needs, needs that are learned
(Travers, 1982).
27Even More on Defining Motivation
- Cultural context must be considered.
- Cultural context can affect a persons
achievement motivation (Travers, 1982). - Fukász (1985) states motivation must always be
studied in the context of historical traditions
and the economic, social, and cultural conditions
of the country in question.
28Why is Motivation Important?
- It is almost universally accepted that there is a
positive correlation between motivation and
learning. - Dewey himself (1938) said that most important
attitude that can be formed is a desire to learn. - Schank (1999) placed motivation at the top of the
list of important things when building the
Virtual University!
29What About Motivation and Learning?
- We need to understand enough about motivation to
effectively employ it in instructional design
processes. - Understanding the particular conditions that
energize human behavior is needed to successfully
control motivational constructs in instruction
(Travers, 1982). - Unfortunately, our understanding of motivation is
a weak link as applied to learning and design
processes (Duchastel, 1997).
30ISD Models With an Implied Motivational Component
- Most models only mention it Reigeluth (1999).
- Some provide general guidelines.
- Cropley (1985) lists five general areas you
should consider - Organization - Environment makes sense.
- Content - Linked to real-life needs.
- Activities - Self-paced.
- Staff Staff Training - Be aware of learner
needs. - Technology - Support all the above.
31More on ISD Models With an Implied Motivational
Component
- Some have motivation covertly assimilated into
the theory. - Dick Carey (1996) state that motivating
learners should be done throughout an
instructional activity. - Open Learning Environments mention topic
relevance (Hannifin, Land, and Oliver, 1999). - The concept of Scaffolding has motivational
aspects.
32ISD Models With an Overt Motivational Component
- ARCS Model (Keller, 1987).
- Time Continuum Model of Motivation (Wlodkowski,
1998, 1999). - Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning
(Malone Lepper, 1988).
33ARCS Model
- Attention
- Relevance
- Confidence
- Satisfaction
34ARCS Model - Attention
- Attention
- Perceptual ArousalGain and maintain student
attention via novel, surprising, incongruous, or
uncertain events in instruction. - Inquiry ArousalStimulate information-seeking
behavior by posing, or having the learner
generate, questions or a problem to solve. - VariabilityMaintain student interest by varying
the elements of instruction.
35ARCS Model - Relevance
- Relevance
- How does the instruction seem to meet the present
and anticipated needs of the learners? - Relevance can not only come from what is taught,
but also from how it is taught. - Curiosity, creativity, and higher-order thinking
are stimulated by relevant, authentic tasks of
optimal difficulty and novelty for each student,
according to Wagner (1998)
36ARCS Model - More on Relevance
- There are three basic methods for providing
relevance - FamiliarityAdapt instruction, use concrete
language, use examples and concepts that are
related to the learner's experience and values to
help them integrate new knowledge. - Goal OrientationProvide statements or examples
that present the objectives and utility of the
instruction, and either present goals for
accomplishment or have the learner define them. - Motive MatchingAdapt by using teaching
strategies that match the motive profiles of the
students.
37ARCS Model - Confidence
- Confidence
- Three ways of building confidence in the learner
- Expectancy for SuccessMake learners aware of
performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
- Challenge SettingProvide multiple achievement
levels that allow learners to set personal goals
or standards of accomplishment, and performance
opportunities that allow them to experience
success. - Attribution MoldingProvide feedback that
supports student ability and effort as the
determinants of success.
38ARCS Model - Satisfaction
- Satisfaction
- How good do people feel about their
accomplishments? There are thee ways of enhancing
satisfaction - Natural ConsequencesProvide opportunities to use
newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or
simulated setting. - Positive ConsequencesProvide feedback and
reinforcements that will sustain the desired
behavior. - EquityMaintain consistent standards and
consequences for task accomplishment.
39Time Continuum Model
- Raymond J. Wlodkowskis believes that in any
instruction, one should build - Value Is the learning important?
- Appeal How stimulating is the learning?
- Perseverance How well do students maintain
their involvement? - Continuing motivation How well/often do
students use what was learned outside the
learning experience.
40Time Continuum Model
- Raymond J. Wlodkowskis Model
- Before Instruction
- Attitude
- Need
- During Instruction
- Stimulation
- Affect
- After Instruction
- Competence
- Reinforcement
41Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive
Teaching
- Another Raymond J. Wlodkowski Model
- 1. Establish inclusion by creating a feeling of
respect and connectivity between teachers and
students. - 2. Develop attitude by ensuring personal
relevance and choice. - 3. Enhance meaning by creating challenging
experiences that include learners values and
perspectives. - 4. Engender competence by creating an
understanding that learners will learn about
something that they want to learn about.
42Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivation for Learning
- Developed by Thomas W. Malone and Mark R. Lepper
(1988). - Two parts
- Individual Motivations and
- Interpersonal Motivations
43Taxonomy - Individual Motivations
- A. Challenge
- A.1. Goals
- A.2. Uncertain Outcomes
- A.3. Performance Feedback
- A.4. Self-esteem
- B. Curiosity
- B.1. Sensory Curiosity
- B.2. Cognitive Curiosity
- C. Control
- C.1. Contingency
- C.2. Choice
- C.3. Power
- D. Fantasy
- D.1. Emotional Aspects
- D.2. Cognitive Aspects
- D.3. Endogeneity
44Taxonomy - Interpersonal Motivations
- A. Cooperation
- B. Competition
- C. Recognition
45Comparison of Taxonomies
- Please refer to the Comparison Handout.
46The Importance of Flow
- A term coined by M. Csikszentmihalyi (1990).
- (Thats pronounced Chick sent me high.)
- A merging of the learners total attention with
the task at hand such that all other sensory and
cognitive distractions are invisible to the
learner. - Flow may be described as an optimal motivating
experience.
47Can Flow Exist in a Learning Environment?
- Jones (1988) believes it can.
- Please refer to the Elements of Flow Handout.
48Group Fun, the Sequel
- Break into groups of 3-4.
- Read the handout.
- Make a list of how you would add motivational
elements to this rough outline. - 10 minutes.
49So Where Do Games Fit?
- Games embody most of the motivational aspects of
the ISD models we examined. - Games develop situated understanding - learn by
doing (Schaffer, Squire, Halverson, and Gee,
2004). - Games can foster development of effective social
practices.
50So Where Do Games Fit? - more
- The traditional learning structure
- Facts (usually in isolation)
- Concepts
- Higher-level learning
- Games flipflop the traditional learning
structure - Higher-level learning
- Facts and concepts emerge naturally.
- Facts and concepts are tied to the activity in a
natural way.
51Problems With Digital Games
- We are not sure how to plan them.
- A great deal of related research exists.
- Most games today are produced without any
learning theory integrated. - Schools are not ready for them.
- Teachers dont see their value.
- Games are at odds with traditional curricula.
52Game Type vs. Cognitive Level
53Potential Research Issues
- Games are immersive
- At what point do people lose interest?
- Games and fun and voluntary
- How much seriousness can we interject in games?
- Games have a number of structures
- Which ones are beneficial for learning?
- Which ones are not?
- Transfer
- How well do game environments and learning
translate to the real world?
54Potential Research Issues
- Games offer a simplified model of reality
- Can one really learn complex, real-world
relationships from them? - Games are motivating
- Does motivation lead to learning gains?
- Retention gains?
- People like games
- But not everyone does, and not everyone likes the
same type of game. - What predictors are there for game preferences?
55Discussion and Wrap-up
56The End
- Or is it really the beginning?