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Digital Games and Motivation: Implications for Instructional Design

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Manager, Instructional Support and Research, Education ... Puzzle Games (Sudoku) 6/18/09. 21. Pirates! 6/18/09. 22. Pirates! 6/18/09. 23. Genres of Games ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Digital Games and Motivation: Implications for Instructional Design


1
Digital Games and Motivation Implications
forInstructional Design
  • Brett Bixler
  • Penn State University

2
Who am I?
  • Brett Bixler
  • Lead Instructional Designer
  • Penn State University
  • Manager, Instructional Support and Research,
    Education Technology Services
  • 23 years working w/ed. tech.

3
Where do I Work?
  • Education Technology Services
  • Part of Teaching and Learning with Technology
  • Part of Information Technology Services (ITS)

4
Why am I Interested in Games?
  • Motivation is a key to learning.
  • Motivated people will learn.
  • Software in the late 80s - early 90s had
    game-like elements.

5
A Day in the Life
6
S.C.O.R.E.
7
Todays Format
  • What is a Game?
  • Group Fun
  • Motivational Theories Discussion
  • More Group Fun
  • Discussion and Wrap-up

8
What is a Game?
  • Voluntary Participation
  • Rules
  • Verify appropriateness of strategies
  • Goals
  • Challenge - You must have a stake in thye
    outcome!
  • Limit usable strategies
  • Defined Outcome(s)

9
What is a Game? - pt. 2
  • Feedback
  • Used to measure progress against goal(s)
  • Interactions
  • Conflict (overt or covert)
  • Competition (with the game, others, or self)
  • Opposition (with the game, others, or self)

10
What is a Game? - pt. 3
  • Representation
  • What the game is about
  • An abstracted story of reality
  • Separation from Reality
  • A safe environment consequences are not
    externalized
  • May contain fantasy or "impossible" elements

11
Types of Games
  • Action
  • Fighting
  • First-person shooter (Doom)
  • Role-playing
  • Individual (Neverwinter Nights)
  • Massively Multiplayer Online Games (EverQuest,
    World of Warcraft)

12
Doom - 1st Person Shooter
13
007 - 1st Person Shooter
14
007 - 1st Person Shooter
15
EverQuest - MMORPG
16
EverQuest - MMORPG
17
Types of Games - pt. 2
  • Adventure
  • Puzzles (Myst)
  • Simulators
  • Flight (MS Flight Simulator)
  • Racing
  • Sports
  • Military (America's Army)
  • Economic (Tycoon Series)
  • City-building Games (SimCity)

18
Sega Tennis
19
Sega Tennis
20
Types of Games - pt. 3
  • Strategy
  • Strategy Wargames
  • Real-time strategy and turn-based strategy games
    (Civilization)
  • Real-time tactical and turn-based tactical games
    (Pirates!)
  • God Games (Sims)
  • Puzzle Games (Sudoku)

21
Pirates!
22
Pirates!
23
Genres of Games
  • Arcade - Asteroids
  • Maze PacMan
  • Music Dance Dance Revolution
  • Party - Dance Dance Revolution
  • Pinball
  • Platform Donkey Kong, Lemmings
  • Stealth - 007
  • Survival horror Resident Evil
  • Traditional Board and Card Games
  • Vehicular combat Interstate '82

24
Group Fun, Part 1
  • Break into groups of 3-4.
  • Read the handout.
  • Make a list of how you would add motivational
    elements to this rough outline.
  • 10 minutes.

25
What is Motivation?
  • Many definitions exist.
  • Defining it is an elusive process, as difficult
    to do as grasping a slippery fish in a dark cave.
  • Heres the one I like
  • The term motivation in psychology is a global
    concept for a variety of processes and effects
    whose common core is the realization that an
    organism selects a particular behavior because of
    expected consequences, and then implements it
    with some measure of energy, along a particular
    path. (Heckhausen, 1991, p. 9).

26
More on Defining Motivation
  • Two basic definitions.
  • Psysiological
  • Observable facts
  • measurable bodily functions. The term energized
    is used (Travers, 1982).
  • Psychological
  • Do we have cognitive sources of motivation?
  • Psychogenic needs, needs that are learned
    (Travers, 1982).

27
Even More on Defining Motivation
  • Cultural context must be considered.
  • Cultural context can affect a persons
    achievement motivation (Travers, 1982).
  • Fukász (1985) states motivation must always be
    studied in the context of historical traditions
    and the economic, social, and cultural conditions
    of the country in question.

28
Why is Motivation Important?
  • It is almost universally accepted that there is a
    positive correlation between motivation and
    learning.
  • Dewey himself (1938) said that most important
    attitude that can be formed is a desire to learn.
  • Schank (1999) placed motivation at the top of the
    list of important things when building the
    Virtual University!

29
What About Motivation and Learning?
  • We need to understand enough about motivation to
    effectively employ it in instructional design
    processes.
  • Understanding the particular conditions that
    energize human behavior is needed to successfully
    control motivational constructs in instruction
    (Travers, 1982).
  • Unfortunately, our understanding of motivation is
    a weak link as applied to learning and design
    processes (Duchastel, 1997).

30
ISD Models With an Implied Motivational Component
  • Most models only mention it Reigeluth (1999).
  • Some provide general guidelines.
  • Cropley (1985) lists five general areas you
    should consider
  • Organization - Environment makes sense.
  • Content - Linked to real-life needs.
  • Activities - Self-paced.
  • Staff Staff Training - Be aware of learner
    needs.
  • Technology - Support all the above.

31
More on ISD Models With an Implied Motivational
Component
  • Some have motivation covertly assimilated into
    the theory.
  • Dick Carey (1996) state that motivating
    learners should be done throughout an
    instructional activity.
  • Open Learning Environments mention topic
    relevance (Hannifin, Land, and Oliver, 1999).
  • The concept of Scaffolding has motivational
    aspects.

32
ISD Models With an Overt Motivational Component
  • ARCS Model (Keller, 1987).
  • Time Continuum Model of Motivation (Wlodkowski,
    1998, 1999).
  • Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning
    (Malone Lepper, 1988).

33
ARCS Model
  • Attention
  • Relevance
  • Confidence
  • Satisfaction

34
ARCS Model - Attention
  • Attention
  • Perceptual ArousalGain and maintain student
    attention via novel, surprising, incongruous, or
    uncertain events in instruction.
  • Inquiry ArousalStimulate information-seeking
    behavior by posing, or having the learner
    generate, questions or a problem to solve.
  • VariabilityMaintain student interest by varying
    the elements of instruction.

35
ARCS Model - Relevance
  • Relevance
  • How does the instruction seem to meet the present
    and anticipated needs of the learners?
  • Relevance can not only come from what is taught,
    but also from how it is taught.
  • Curiosity, creativity, and higher-order thinking
    are stimulated by relevant, authentic tasks of
    optimal difficulty and novelty for each student,
    according to Wagner (1998)

36
ARCS Model - More on Relevance
  • There are three basic methods for providing
    relevance
  • FamiliarityAdapt instruction, use concrete
    language, use examples and concepts that are
    related to the learner's experience and values to
    help them integrate new knowledge.
  • Goal OrientationProvide statements or examples
    that present the objectives and utility of the
    instruction, and either present goals for
    accomplishment or have the learner define them.
  • Motive MatchingAdapt by using teaching
    strategies that match the motive profiles of the
    students.

37
ARCS Model - Confidence
  • Confidence
  • Three ways of building confidence in the learner
  • Expectancy for SuccessMake learners aware of
    performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
  • Challenge SettingProvide multiple achievement
    levels that allow learners to set personal goals
    or standards of accomplishment, and performance
    opportunities that allow them to experience
    success.
  • Attribution MoldingProvide feedback that
    supports student ability and effort as the
    determinants of success.

38
ARCS Model - Satisfaction
  • Satisfaction
  • How good do people feel about their
    accomplishments? There are thee ways of enhancing
    satisfaction
  • Natural ConsequencesProvide opportunities to use
    newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or
    simulated setting.
  • Positive ConsequencesProvide feedback and
    reinforcements that will sustain the desired
    behavior.
  • EquityMaintain consistent standards and
    consequences for task accomplishment.

39
Time Continuum Model
  • Raymond J. Wlodkowskis believes that in any
    instruction, one should build
  • Value Is the learning important?
  • Appeal How stimulating is the learning?
  • Perseverance How well do students maintain
    their involvement?
  • Continuing motivation How well/often do
    students use what was learned outside the
    learning experience.

40
Time Continuum Model
  • Raymond J. Wlodkowskis Model
  • Before Instruction
  • Attitude
  • Need
  • During Instruction
  • Stimulation
  • Affect
  • After Instruction
  • Competence
  • Reinforcement

41
Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive
Teaching
  • Another Raymond J. Wlodkowski Model
  • 1. Establish inclusion by creating a feeling of
    respect and connectivity between teachers and
    students.
  • 2. Develop attitude by ensuring personal
    relevance and choice.
  • 3. Enhance meaning by creating challenging
    experiences that include learners values and
    perspectives.
  • 4. Engender competence by creating an
    understanding that learners will learn about
    something that they want to learn about.

42
Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivation for Learning
  • Developed by Thomas W. Malone and Mark R. Lepper
    (1988).
  • Two parts
  • Individual Motivations and
  • Interpersonal Motivations

43
Taxonomy - Individual Motivations
  • A. Challenge
  • A.1. Goals
  • A.2. Uncertain Outcomes
  • A.3. Performance Feedback
  • A.4. Self-esteem
  • B. Curiosity
  • B.1. Sensory Curiosity
  • B.2. Cognitive Curiosity
  • C. Control
  • C.1. Contingency
  • C.2. Choice
  • C.3. Power
  • D. Fantasy
  • D.1. Emotional Aspects
  • D.2. Cognitive Aspects
  • D.3. Endogeneity

44
Taxonomy - Interpersonal Motivations
  • A. Cooperation
  • B. Competition
  • C. Recognition

45
Comparison of Taxonomies
  • Please refer to the Comparison Handout.

46
The Importance of Flow
  • A term coined by M. Csikszentmihalyi (1990).
  • (Thats pronounced Chick sent me high.)
  • A merging of the learners total attention with
    the task at hand such that all other sensory and
    cognitive distractions are invisible to the
    learner.
  • Flow may be described as an optimal motivating
    experience.

47
Can Flow Exist in a Learning Environment?
  • Jones (1988) believes it can.
  • Please refer to the Elements of Flow Handout.

48
Group Fun, the Sequel
  • Break into groups of 3-4.
  • Read the handout.
  • Make a list of how you would add motivational
    elements to this rough outline.
  • 10 minutes.

49
So Where Do Games Fit?
  • Games embody most of the motivational aspects of
    the ISD models we examined.
  • Games develop situated understanding - learn by
    doing (Schaffer, Squire, Halverson, and Gee,
    2004).
  • Games can foster development of effective social
    practices.

50
So Where Do Games Fit? - more
  • The traditional learning structure
  • Facts (usually in isolation)
  • Concepts
  • Higher-level learning
  • Games flipflop the traditional learning
    structure
  • Higher-level learning
  • Facts and concepts emerge naturally.
  • Facts and concepts are tied to the activity in a
    natural way.

51
Problems With Digital Games
  • We are not sure how to plan them.
  • A great deal of related research exists.
  • Most games today are produced without any
    learning theory integrated.
  • Schools are not ready for them.
  • Teachers dont see their value.
  • Games are at odds with traditional curricula.

52
Game Type vs. Cognitive Level
53
Potential Research Issues
  • Games are immersive
  • At what point do people lose interest?
  • Games and fun and voluntary
  • How much seriousness can we interject in games?
  • Games have a number of structures
  • Which ones are beneficial for learning?
  • Which ones are not?
  • Transfer
  • How well do game environments and learning
    translate to the real world?

54
Potential Research Issues
  • Games offer a simplified model of reality
  • Can one really learn complex, real-world
    relationships from them?
  • Games are motivating
  • Does motivation lead to learning gains?
  • Retention gains?
  • People like games
  • But not everyone does, and not everyone likes the
    same type of game.
  • What predictors are there for game preferences?

55
Discussion and Wrap-up
  • QA!

56
The End
  • Or is it really the beginning?
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