Learning

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Learning
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Learning

• A relatively durable change in behavior or
  knowledge that is due to experience
• Observational Learning
• when ones own behaviors/responses are influenced
  by the observation of others (models)
• Conditioning
• a specific type of learning that involves
  learning associations between events that occur
  internally and/or in the environment
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

• A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires
  the capacity to evoke a response that was
  originally evoked by another stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov (1903) - physiologist
• The accidental discovery
• HOW stimulus-response associations are paired
  determines WHAT is learned

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Classical Conditioning

• Terminology - Understanding stimuli
• Neutral stimulus (NS)
• stimulus that produces no specific response
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response
  without previous conditioning
• instinctual or natural
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• previously neutral stimulus that has, through
  conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a
  conditioned response

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Classical Conditioning

• Terminology - Understanding responses
• Unconditioned response (UCR)
• an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned
  stimulus that occurs without previous learning
• Conditioned response (CR)
• learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that
  occurs because of previous conditioning
• NOTE
• the UCR and CR may be the same behavior
• when the behavior is elicited by the UCS, the UCR
  results when elicited by the CS, the CR results

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Classical Conditioning

• Before conditioning
• the unconditioned stimulus elicits the
  unconditioned response, but the neutral stimulus
  does not

No response
NS (Tone)
UCS (Meat powder)
UCR (Salivation)
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Classical Conditioning

• During conditioning
• The neutral stimulus is paired with the
  unconditioned stimulus

NS (Tone)
UCS (Meat powder)
UCR (Salivation)
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Classical Conditioning

• After conditioning
• The neutral stimulus alone elicits the response
  the neutral stimulus is NOW a conditioned
  stimulus, and the response to it is a conditioned
  response

NS CS (Tone)
CR (Salivation)
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Classical Conditioning

• Summary
• An originally neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
  response that it did not previously elicit

CR (Salivation)
CS (Tone)
UCR (Salivation)
UCS (Meat powder)
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Classical Conditioning

• Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition - Forming New Responses
• the formation of a new CR tendency
• depends on stimulus contiguity
• Stimulus Contiguity
• the temporal (time) association between 2 events
• conditioning is MORE LIKELY to occur when the CS
  begins about a 1/2 second BEFORE the UCS and
  stops at the same time as the UCS
• Potency
• stimuli that are novel or especially intense have
  more potential to become CSs than routine or
  benign stimuli

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Classical Conditioning

• Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
• Extinction - Weakening Conditioned Responses
• The gradual weakening and disappearance of a
  conditioned response tendency
• HOW??
• Consistently present the CS alone, without the
  unconditioned stimulus
• Stimulus Generalization
• After conditioning occurs, one tends to respond
  to not only the exact CS, but also similar
  stimuli
• Watsons study with Little Albert

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Classical Conditioning

• In Laboratory
• frequently studied responses include
• eyelid closure, knee jerks, limb flexing, fear
  responses
• In Everyday Life
• Phobias
• Aversion therapy
• Setting the mood for sexual intimacy may
  jumpstart arousal prior to sexual contact

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Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning
• best explains reflexive responding
• explains only behavior controlled by stimuli that
  PRECEDE the response
• Cannot explain some behaviors (studying)
• Studying is most influenced by stimulus events
  that FOLLOW the response - CONSEQUENCES
• Operant Conditioning
• a form of learning in which voluntary responses
  come to be controlled by their consequences

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Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner
• Organisms tend to repeat those responses that are
  followed by favorable consequences.
• Reinforcement
• occurs when an event following a response
  increases an organisms tendency to make a
  response
• Reinforcement contingencies
• circumstances or rules that determine whether
  responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

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Operant Conditioning

• Acquisition and Shaping
• Operant responses are established through a
  gradual process called shaping
• Shaping -
• the reinforcement of closer and closer
  approximations of a desired response
• necessary when one does not, on its own, emit the
  desired response
• training your dog
• Extinction
• gradual weakening and disappearance of a response
  because it is no longer followed by reinforcement

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Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement
• anything that increases the rate of responding
• Positive reinforcement
• occurs when a response is STRENGTHENED because it
  is followed by the PRESENTATION OF A REWARDING
  STIMULUS
• studying to do well on a test
• Negative reinforcement
• occurs when a response is STRENGTHENED because it
  is followed by the REMOVAL OF AN AVERSIVE
  (UNPLEASANT) STIMULUS
• giving in to your childs begging to halt the
  whining

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Operant Conditioning

• Punishment
• Occurs when an event following a response WEAKENS
  the tendency to make that response
• Typically involves presentation of an aversive
  stimulus (shock, spanking)
• May have unintended side effects (strong
  emotional responses, disruption in normal
  functioning)
• Physical punishment often leads to increases in
  aggressive behavior

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Operant Conditioning

• Schedules of Reinforcement
• A specific pattern of presenting the reinforcers
  over time
• Continuous reinforcement
• Behavior is reinforced EVERY time it occurs
• Intermittent reinforcement
• Behavior is reinforced only SOME of the times
  that it occurs
• INTERMITTENT schedules lead to behavior that is
  more resistant to extinction

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Operant Conditioning
FIXED
VARIABLE
Reinforcer given every 10th occurrence of
response Getting a sales bonus for every 10
cars sold
Reinforcer given ON AVERAGE every 10th
response SLOT MACHINES
RATIO Varies by of times behavior occurs
Reinforcer given for first Response that occurs
in a specific period of time Having a test
every 3 weeks
Reinforcer given for first response that occurs
on Average every 3 weeks Pop quizzes
INTERVAL Varies by length of time across which
behavior occurs
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Operant Conditioning

• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Ratio Schedule
• Higher rates of responding with pause after
  reinforcement
• Fixed Interval Schedule
• Long pauses after prior reinforcer
• Variable Schedules
• Steadier response rates
• Greater resistance to extinction