History of Computers Spring 2002

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What is the Abacus?
The abacus is a mechanical aid used for counting
it is not a calculator in the sense we use the
word today. The person operating the abacus
performs calculations in their head and uses the
abacus to keep track of the sums, the carries,
etc. The device evolved from a simple need to
count numbers. Merchants trading goods not only
needed a way to count goods bought and sold, but
also to calculate the cost of those goods. Until
numbers were invented, these counting devices
were used to make everyday calculations.
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History
The Abacus, that is still in used in some
peoples every day life, it is even considered one
of the first computers. It is though to have been
invented in Babylonia (Now Iraq) Emerging about
5,000 years ago.
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The Pascaline
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How it Works
The Pascaline is an addition and subtraction
machine that was perfected by Blaise Pascal in
1640. The Pascaline has 1 row of different color
numbers for addition. It also has another row
with black numbers for subtraction. In front of
the window there are 8 spokes that are in the
appearance of a wheel.
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How do you use it?
The pascaline did help you a lot when doing
addition. If you wanted to add the numbers 20 and
81 it was complicated but efficient. To do this
you would have to put your finger in the spokes
in between 2 but before 3. The wheel would
transmit the number 000020. Then, to add 81 put
your fingers in the spokes in the 8, but after
the nine. The machine would rotate one tenth (the
first number to be added later.) The machine
would now display 100. Put your finger next to
spokes 1 and 2 and you have your number 000101,
the correct addition.
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The Problem
The pascaline worked very well with addition,
but subtraction was harder. The wheels could only
rotate one way. For subtraction the wheels needed
to go the opposite direction. The solution to the
problem was to have the subtraction formed by
nines complements. This way subtraction could be
done and the wheels could go the right way. Say
you wanted to subtract 20 from 50. You have to
pull down the slat to reveal the nines
complements. Dial (as you did in addition) 20.
This produces a nines complement of 79.This makes
the number 129. Now, mentally perform the
end-around carry add the first digit of 129 which
is 1, to the numbers that come from 129 except 1
which is 29. This is resulting 30 which is the
correct answer.
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ARITHOMETER

• By Scott Austin

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Computers today are extending the reach on how
far we have gone in life. We have seen almost
everything, from the 1930s to 2003. Computers
are now so small and fast we have encountered one
of the first big step to the future. Computer
chips are smaller than pennys and they generate
our fastest computers and calculators. We have
the ATM that has the power to count and
automatically send you your money and account,
all processed by that small chip .
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History
The arithometer was one of the first ways to add
,subtract , multiply and divide. They sold around
1500 of them. It was used for a lot untill world
war 2. Babbage declared, I wish to god these
calculations had been performed by steam. When
he said that, the automation of computers had
begun. Babbage saw that a natural harmony between
machines and mathematics, machines were best at
performing tasks repeatedly without mistakes.
While mathematics often required the simple
repetition of steps. Babbage tried to solve this
was in 1822 when he proposed a machine to perform
different equations called a difference
machine. After working of this for 10 years he
was suddenly inspired to make the first general
purpose computer, the analytical engine.
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faq's

• One of the first ways to add subtract multiply
  and divide
• Sold over 1500 of the arithometer

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The Arithometer
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History Behind The Arithometer
Back in the 1800s this machine was so complex
that it took several scientist, at different
point in times, just to make it. The person who
actually came up with the idea was Charles
Babbage. While at the Royal Astronomical Society,
Charles got frustrated with his work because of
the many errors he found while examining
calculators. Then it struck him. He had to come
up with an machine that would do mathematics
without simply repeating the steps, and he did.
This machine was later known as the Difference
Engine. This device could store programs and
print things automatically. This device is like
the computer and printer we have today. One of
the inventors that helped with the arithometer
was Herman Hollerith. His goal was the some as
Charles but Herman wanted to find a way to speed
up the process. In order to do this, instead of
using Charles idea for using Perforated cards to
instruct the machine, Herman used the cards to
store information in the machine. The cards
served as, what we know of today, as stored data.
Companies such as Remington Rand, IBM, and
Burroughs used these punching cards until the
late 1960s.
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The ENIAC A History of Computers

• By
• Brad Taylor Parker Black

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About the ENIAC

• John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert developed
  the ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And
  Calculator) in 1946. It took 1 year to design,
  and 18 months and 500,000 tax dollars to build
  it. It covered 1800 square feet, weighed 30
  tons, and used 160 kilowatts of electrical power,
  and, when turned on, caused the city of
  Philadelphia to experience blowouts.

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More Facts

• Most of todays high speed computers got their
  components from the design of the ENIAC.
• The ENIAC was divided into 8 different sections
  The accumulator, initiator, master programmer,
  multiplier, divider/square-root, gate, buffer,
  and function tables.

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Further Development

• In 1948, Dr. John Von Neumann made some
  modifications to the ENIAC. It performed
  arithmetic and transfer operations currently,
  which caused difficulties in programming. He
  solved the problem by making the cable
  connections fixed and adding a converter code to
  enable serial operation.
• In 1946, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly began
  the Eckert Mauchly Computer Corporation and in
  1949, made the BINAC (BINary Automatic Computer),
  that used magnetic tape to store data.

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The End of the ENIAC

• In 1950, the Remington Rand Corporation bought
  the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation and
  changed the name to Univac Division of Remington
  Rand. They later developed the UNIVAC (UNIVersal
  Automatic Computer).

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The Second Generation of Computers

By Tyler Fleet Stuart Zick
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The Transistor

• The transistor was invented around 1947 but did
  not begin to play a big role in computers until
  1956.
• Ever since the transistor was introduced to the
  computer the size has been shrinking.
• When the transistor was put together with early
  advances in magnetic-core memory, thats when the
  second generation computer came into the picture,
  being smaller, faster, more reliable, and more
  energy-efficient when compared to their
  predecessors.

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Supercomputers

• The first large-scale machines to test out the
  new technology provided by the transistor were
  supercomputers.
• IBM came up with a supercomputer that they named
  Stretch, and LARC was the name of the
  supercomputer from Sperry-Rand
• These computers were both made for atomic energy
  laboratories and could hold much large amounts of
  data, which made these supercomputers very
  respected, wanted, and needed, by atomic
  scientists.

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1960's Developements

• In the 1960s there were a numerous amount of
  successful Second Generation computers.
• These computers were mostly used in business,
  universities, and government.
• The companies that supplied these computers of
  the Second Generation were companies such as
  Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM,
  Sperry-Rand, and a few others.
• These computers also had transistors in place of
  vacuum tubes, and contained components used in
  modern day computers, such as printers, tape
  storage, disk storage, memory, and more.
• By 1965, second generation computers were used to
  process financial information for large business.

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Importance of Second Generation Computers

• Business was finally able to use these second
  generation computers when the stored program and
  programming language were installed.
• The meaning of a stored program was that
  instructions to run a computer for a specific
  function were in the memory of the computer
  itself.
• These computers could print the invoices of
  customers and just moments later design products
  or calculate paychecks.
• COBOL and FORTRAN were more sophisticated
  high-level languages that were commonly used
  during this time, and today are still expanding.
• Cryptic binary machine coding was replaced by
  these languages with words, sentences, even
  mathematic formulas, making it very simple to
  program a computer.

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By Chrystom Stout
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The Third Generation Of Computers was born in
1958 when integrated circuits or (IC) was created
by Jack Kilby. The integrated circuits were
helpful because they didn't create as much heat
as the vacuum tubes or transistors. In 1969 up to
1000 transistors were being built on one single
little chip of silicon!
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Also in the Third Generation, a better operating
system was created so that the computer could run
different programs at one time instead of only
one. This helped a lot in the computer industry
because more people got interested in computers
and sells went up.
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Produced by Brandon SteeleCo Hosted by Jose
Gutierrez
Fourth Generation of Computers
You are About to Go
Where No Human Being
Has Ever Gone Before
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So Whos the Wise Guy?

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So Whats the Sitch

• By the 1980s the technology was already being
  invented to be able to fit thousands of
  components into a ¼ size chip. Information could
  be accessed from this chip in less than a second.
  This goes by the name microprocessor or
  microcomputer. This is one of the many
  characteristics of the fourth generation
  computers.

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Fifth generation computers
Created by Kindel Burkett
Paula Crowfoot
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Explaining fifth generation computers is
difficult because the field is not well matured.
Though the wayward HAL9000 may be far from the
reach of real-life computer designers, many of
its functions are not. Using recent engineering
advances, computers may be able to accept spoken
word instructions and imitate human reasoning.
The ability to translate a foreign language is
also a major goal of the fifth generation
computers. This feat seemed to be a simple
objective at first, but appeared much more
difficult when programmers realized that human
understanding relies as much on context and
meaning as it does on the simple translation of
words. Many advances in the science of computer
design and technology are coming together to
enable the creation of fifth-generation
computers. Two such engineering advances are
parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann's
single central processing unit design with a
system harnessing the power of many CPUs to work
as one. Another advance is superconductor
technology, which allows the flow of electricity
with little or no resistance, greatly improving
the speed of information flow. Computers today
have some attributes of fifth generation
computers. For example, expert systems assist
doctors in making diagnoses by applying the
problem-solving steps a doctor might use in
assessing a patient's needs. It will take several
more years of development before expert systems
are in widespread use.
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The movement from one computer generation to the
next will take years. It is very difficult to be
just perfectly sure about the end of one
generation and the beginning of the next
generation. Although the fourth generation of
computers generally are used in the 1990's, some
of the computers and computer systems of the
fourth generation have some properties of
computers which are considered to be part of the
fifth-generation of computers.
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The Applications for the fifth Generation of
computers.
The applications for the 5th generation of
computers are smart robots that can see their
environment (visual input as in e.g. a video
camera) and can be programmed to carry out
certain tasks without having to give them
step-by-step instructions. The robot should be
able to decide for itself how the task should be
accomplished, based on the observations it made
of the environment around it. The 5th generation
computers should have such intelligent systems
that it can control the route of a missile and
the defence systems could fend off attacks of the
missiles. This generation should have Word
Processors that can be controlled by means of
speech recognition and have programs that could
translate documents from one language to another
language.