A System of Change

1
A System of Change
2
(No Transcript)
3
An underlying problem generates symptoms that
demand attention. But the underlying problem is
difficult for people to address, either because
it is obscure or costly to confront. So people
shift the burden of their problem to other
solutions - well-intentioned, easy fixes which
seem extremely efficient. Unfortunately, the
easier solutions only ameliorate the symptoms
they leave the underlying problems unaltered.
Senge - 1990
4
The Fundamental IssueThe theory of mental
illness is invalid.
5
Prominent psychiatrists are stating that
schizophrenia is a brain disease like
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, or multiple sclerosis.
These statements are disconfirmed by scientific
facts no neurologist can independently confirm
the presence or absence of schizophrenia with
laboratory tests because the large majority of
people diagnosed with schizophrenia show no
neuropathological or biochemical abnormalities
and a few people without any symptoms of
schizophrenia have the same biophysiological
abnormalities. People with schizophrenia do not
usually progressively deteriorate most improve
over time. Intervention, without medications,
have led even the most severely disturbed
individuals with schizophrenia to full recovery
and beyond. Many people diagnosed with
schizophrenia have recovered on their own without
any treatment, something never accomplished by a
person with Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, or multiple
sclerosis.
6
One important source of information a person has
about his/her emotional problems is the nature
and extent of help required to alleviate them.
Acceptance into a time limited crisis situation
provides validation for attributing the crisis to
a problem in living, while the short course of
intervention facilitates seeking the problem as
quickly changeable. Brief help often leads to the
conclusion that very little must be troubling
me and that therefore, I am able to deal with
the problem. Time limitation arouses an
expectation of rapid restoration of internal
control over problems, while long-term
intervention may arouse an expectation of slow,
effortful change.
7
The goal to develop and implement effective
social policy.
8
SUPERORDINATE GOALSOrganizations are created to
achieve the goals of society. They receive
their authorization from society and must be
responsive to societys demands. Organizations
are a function of societal goals and provide the
agency for accomplishing the desired performance.
Performance can only be measured by comparison to
an expected outcome.
9
...the problems of public policy are not given.
They are constructed by human beings in their
attempts to make sense of complex and troubling
situations, often in the context of the disaster
produced by the last solution. Problem settings
are artifacts in their own right, and they
determine the directions of problem-solution
Schon - 1980. Emphasis added
10
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALSA formulation of
organizational goals should meet the following
requirements each societal goal should be
expanded by a phrase which specifies how this
will be accomplished by providing the
statement should be supported by a rationale
which will explain why the performance outcome
is desirable the statement may incorporate an
indication of the process to be used if the
process itself is a major commitment of the
society
11
PROCESS GOALSPerformance implies an outcome
which is a product. In social services the
product is a changed person. In a democratic
society concerned with human rights, there is
also a commitment to certain process goals based
on process oriented values.There are two major
goals which represent a commitment of the
individual learner. each learner is a unique
person. Programs should be established which
take individual differences into
account. learning how to learn may be as
important as learning itself
12
OBJECTIVES Organizational goals and below
require specific performance objectives which are
the guidelines established as a specification of
the means selected to achieve outcome
expectations. They provide the following
advantages they are linked to performance
outcomes they make it easier to select resource
materials they provide criteria for evaluation
and assessment of learning they can specify
the level at which learning should occur they
provide a standard for diagnosing and
prescribing for individual expressed
preferences they can specify means for
attaining effective outcomes they make clear
at the moment of intervention what the learner
is expected to learn.
13
A statement of objectives should specify what
the learner is expected to be able to do
by - using thoughts and feelings that denote
observable action - indicating the stimulus
that is to evoke the behavior of the
learner - specifying the resources to be used by
the learner and persons with whom the learner
should interact how well the behavior is
expected to be performed by identifying - accur
acy of correctness of response - response
length, speed, rate, etc. under what
circumstances the learner is expected to perform
by specifying - physical or situational
circumstances - psychological conditions
14
SYSTEMSThe greater the organizing power of the
key concepts, the more powerful is the system.
15
Attributes of a system related to a common
purpose of goal, consequently viewed as a
whole isolated from its environment, if
closed  closed systems cannot
change. related to its environment, if
open  open systems are responsive to
feedback changes by interacting with its
environment, i.e. dynamic entity hierarchical
by nature and structured by a series of supra -
and sub systems structure determines its
function stabilized and/or reorganized by
feedback, either positive or negative changes
can lead to progress or to self- destruction
16
Systems were invented by human beings as a way of
perceiving relationships.
17
When we find a system to be too complex to be
manageable, we invent subsystems which are not
fragmented units but complete systems in
themselves.
18
Problem to get from the stated goal to the
outcome efficiently and effectivelyApproach Uti
lize a system analyze what needs to be done
System Analysis design how it is to be done
System DesignSolution Operate the
system process the tasks to produce the
outcome System Management
19
In order to qualify as a cybernetic device there
are three functions which must be
performed detect the critical
information evaluate the information to
obtain a measurement which can be compared to
qualifications regulate the system with the
necessary corrective impact
20
THE PROCESS
21
1. Analyze what needs to be done
22
1.1 State the Goal The goal statement must be
explicit enough so that anyone can visualize
how people or things will be different when the
goal is attained. In moving from outcome goal
to objectives, describe with increasing
detail how persons or things will
perform establish a procedure for
measuring progress in comparison with the
described goal
23
A formulation of the outcome goal should be brief
and accurate and include an introductory
paragraph which describes the commitment of
purpose to which the goal is directed. This
paragraph is usually sufficient for a complex
set of goals, such as the goals of cognitive
behavior management. a brief rationale which
makes it clear why this goal or these goals
are worthy of attainment a specification of
the goal which provides a general indication of
the performance which is sought a
specification of any process goals which must
be considered.
24
These process goals are major commitments of
society which indicate that the product
attainment, important as it is, cannot be
realized at the sacrifice of the rights of
individuals. A goal is not concerned with
explicit performance objectives. The major
consideration is with universals, the broad
social and educational desires of society. An
indication of performance in broad general
terms must be provided. The process by which
the goal will be attained should be included
if a commitment to the dignity of the
individual performer or learn demands a
process that will not violate his/her integrity.
25
1.1.1 consider the alternatives What is the
goal at present? What functions are being
performed? What methods are used to attain
these functions? Why is change necessary?
26
Whenever expressed needs are formulated as goals,
there is an implicit hypothesis that the outcome
goal is the best possible solution to the
problem. has the clients indication of a
desired change been interpreted correctly? is
the client open to consideration of a revision
of the outcome goal? is the goal statement
broad enough to allow for flexibility in
establishing objectives? Is the goal completely
responsive to the desires of those who will be
affected? is the effort and energy applied to
the system well spent or should other important
or relevant goals be considered?
27
Goals which indicate in any way HOW the goal is
to be reached preempt the rights of those whose
responsibility is to determine the methods and
means of attaining the goal.
28
1.1.2 establish base criterion measuresFocus
on the thing that is to be processed by the
system.The thing to be processed is called the
purposive input. The term purposive is used to
denote an input which is the purpose of the
system to produce or process. We must describe
the input accurately because the difference
between the input and the outcome will become one
of the measure of the effectiveness of our
system. Each characteristic of the input which is
destined to be changed must be quantitatively
described if possible so that we can later
determine how much change has taken place.
29
The statement of the desired change provides the
data for performance measure. the outcome
statement is a description of ends, not methods
and means. We are interested in a general
description of the ultimate behavior required
for acceptable performance. Any description
which specifies the means to be used must be
justified as a desire of society. outcome
measures need not be specific at this point
since they will be supported by performance
objectives. the major sin in establishing
outcome measure is restricting consideration to
behavior which can be measured easily. Goals
which deal with attitudes are important
although they are more difficult to assess. Our
purpose is to describe behavior which is
desirable before we attempt to measure it. Those
who consider only that which is measurable to be
desirable eliminate many worthwhile goals in
the process.
30
1.1.3 identify the constraintsWhat factors
have made it difficult to achieve the present
goals? are the input resources adequate?
Consider all the resources needed to do the
job finances, material and personnel. what
contingencies are interfering with progress?
Contingencies are influences which are not a
planned part of the operations family, school
influences. are the tasks relevant to the
goal? Are efficient methods being used? is
the system being adequately monitored? There
must be provisions for frequent and reliable
evaluation concerning how well the system is
meeting its objectives. Inadequate monitoring
is a constraint to management control.
31
1.2 State the terminal objectivesThe terms
performance objectives, behavioral outcomes,
instructional objectives, and management
objectives are all common terms which
essentially identify the outcome expectations
after the process is completed. These objectives
are related directly to the goal and are
differentiated from means objectives which are
identified as enabling objectives.
32
1.2.1 consider alternative objectivesThe
consideration of alternative solutions is an
important characteristic of system engineering.
Key questions will include how effective is
the solution in terms of achieving the goal?
Index of goal attainment how effective is the
solution in terms of producing change? Index
of change are new and better resources
available? is the procedure feasible in terms
of cost efficiency? are there humane factors
which would make alternative procedures more
desirable even though somewhat less productive?
33
1.2.2 establish the base criterion measure for
each objective describe in detail what the
finished product must look like and how it
will function nomenclature specify the
conditions under which it will function as
stated specification specify the standards of
performance which will be acceptable
standards
34
Two additional factors must be met the
practitioner must perceive the relationship
between objectives, strategy and evaluation.
In other words the concept of an instructional
system must be fully comprehended before
performance objectives can be used
effectively. performance objectives tell what
is to be accomplished but not why, a
rationale should be written to justify for
the learner and the instructor why a
particular performance is worth
accomplishing.
35
1.2.3 identify the constraints to
performanceA constraint is any factor which is
likely to interfere with the attainment of the
objective. input constraints - inputs to a
system can be classified as either purposive or
resources. Purposive inputs are the things we
are trying to change while the resources are
available to bring about the change. Each
purposive input with characteristics or needs not
anticipated by the system is a
constraint. Resource inputs which arrive too
little or tool late must also be considered as
constraints. contingencies - anything which
might happen along the way from input to
outcome which will influence the change taking
place in a manner not planned is a contingency.
36
1.3 state the enabling objectivesWe will have
to wait until the method has been selected before
we can consider the enabling objects. Fortunately
the procedures for deriving the enabling
objectives are identical to those used in
establishing the terminal objectives. When the
design operations are completed, we can refer to
that process which is equally appropriate for
writing enabling objectives.
37
design how it is to be done 2.1 study the
existing system It is important to know why
change is desired. Have the goals and objectives
changed? Do similar constraints still exist?
38
2.2 conceptualize the structure System and
structure are related concepts. When we
create a system we conceptualize a
structure. Function determines form and
constraints modified form until a final
structure appears.
39
2.3 select an appropriate model When we design
a system, we construct a model which stands
for the real life system proposed. Models may
be physical devices, flow charts, mathematical
equations, or descriptive statements.
40
2.4 select the method/meansSelect the methods
and means of implementing the design. Now we must
select the components, materials and personnel
which best accomplish each objective.The
selection of the components is both a science and
an art. compile a list of all components
which are suitable to perform each
function list all performance specifications
for each component list all design limits
prescribed by the client or determined by the
analyst determine the effectiveness of the
component determine the efficiency of the
component match the components to the
individual characteristics of the purposive input
41
2.2.1 identify alternative components The
investigation of resources will suggest
alternative solutions. Newer automated
equipment could increase efficiency. The
available staff might be reduced by improving
scheduling and deployment. Each procedure
should be outlined sufficiently so that a cost
analysis is possible. The key factor in
selecting from available alternatives will be
the comparative indices of effectiveness and
efficiency.
42
3. Manage the system