Problems Women Face In Management

1
Problems WomenFace In Management
2
Insight into the Problems

• The Landmark Hibbs Case before the U.S. Supreme
  Court

3
Nevada Department of Human Resources v. William
Hibbs, et al., May 2003

• This case related to the constitutionality of the
  Family Medical Leave Act and whether it was
  applicable to men as well as women.
• The Supreme Court said yes to both questions.
• But the court astonishingly went further in
  documenting discrimination against women in the
  workplace.

4
The Hibbs Case

• The history of the many state laws limiting
  womens employment opportunities is chronicled
  inand, until recently, was sanctioned bythis
  Courts own opinions.
• EXAMPLES The Court upheld state laws
  prohibiting women from practicing law and tending
  bar respectively.

5
The Hibbs Case

• State laws frequently subjected women to
  distinctive restrictions, terms, conditions, and
  benefits for those jobs they could take.
• This Court approved a state law limiting the
  hours that women could work for wages . . .
• WHY?

6
The Hibbs Case

• These laws were based on the related beliefs
  that (1) a woman is, and should remain, the
  center of home and family life, and (2) the law
  should prescribe a proper discharge of a womans
  maternal functions.
• Until 1971 it remained the prevailing doctrine
  that government could withhold from women
  opportunities accorded men so long as any basis
  in reason, such as the ones cited above, could be
  conceived for the discrimination.

7
The Hibbs Case

• This discrimination was not attributable to any
  differential physical needs of men and women, but
  rather to the pervasive sex-role stereotype that
  caring for family members is womens work.
• Historically, denial or curtailment of womens
  employment opportunities has been traceable
  directly to the pervasive presumption that women
  are mothers first, and workers second. This
  prevailing ideology about womens roles has in
  turn justified discrimination against women when
  they are mothers or mothers-to-be.

8
How Did It Get This Way???
Of course he doesnt have a clue!
9
In the Beginning!
CAVE
Home Sweet Home
10
Culture

• Culture is the shared language, events, symbols,
  rituals and values of a societys members working
  together in a system tempered by environment.
• Culture is acquired from all the knowledge,
  beliefs, morals, customs, and any other habits
  and capabilities an individual acquires as a
  member of a society.

11
Culture

• Culture is learned, shared, transmitted and
  symbolically derived and has a profound influence
  on behavior, including gender roles.
• WHAT ARE SOME GENDER ROLES?

12
Stereotyping Women
13
Flawed Judgments about People Stereotyping 101

• When we stereotype, we make gross
  generalizations often they miss the mark.
• We apply stereotypes automatically.
• Often we cause people to act in ways that confirm
  our stereotypes.
• Stereotyping is a destructive and hard habit to
  break!

14
Common Stereotypes about Women in the Workplace

• Women are less committed to their jobs than men.
• Women cant or wont put in the hours that are
  required to get the job done.
• Women are not qualified or prepared for the job.
• Women are not assertive.
• Women dont take risks.
• When women become pregnant, they quit their jobs
  and stay home after the baby is born.
• Women wont relocate or cant travel for work.
• Women really dont need to work, because men can
  support them.

15
Stereotyping

• Catalyst, an organization that supports women
  in the workplace, released a research study done
  in 2005 that identified the major stereotype
  found in the workplace women take care of men
  take charge of.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
16
Stereotyping in the Workplace

• QUESTION Where do these perceptions come from
  if they dont reflect real differences?
• ANSWER Gender roles get trans-formed into
  stereotypes that linger well past the time of
  their reality (if ever).

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
17
Stereotyping in the Workplace

• Both men and women share SIMILAR perceptions
  of what the gender differences are
• In U.S. culture, people tend to associate
  qualities such as friendliness, sentimentality,
  and caring with women.
• In U.S. culture, people tend to associate
  qualities such as aggressiveness, rationality,
  and self-confidence with men.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
18
Stereotyping WOMENin the Workplace

• Feminine behaviors that rely on
  stereotypically feminine traits
• Supporting
• Rewarding
• Mentoring
• Networking
• Consulting
• Team-Building
• Inspiring

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
19
Stereotyping MENin the Workplace

• Masculine behaviors that rely on
  stereotypically masculine traits
• Problem-solving
• Influencing Upward
• Delegating
• Assertiveness

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
20
Stereotyping Womenin the Workplace

• In the Catalyst study men estimated that 80
  of men leaders were effective at
  problem-solvinga critical leadership
  behaviorand they estimated that only 67 of
  women leaders were effective at problem solving.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
21
Stereotyping Womenin the Workplace

• Analyses of numerous studies show that women and
  men lead in similar ways.
• YET, Catalyst found that senior managers
  perceive sharp differences in womens and mens
  leadership.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
22
Stereotyping Womenin the Workplace

• Flawed stereotypical judgements about women
  leaders create a devastating predicament for
  them.
• Stereotyping thus makes the demands of leadership
  much greater for women than men.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
23
Predicament 1-Catalyst

• Respondents comments revealed the following
  perceptions about women as leaders
• When women act in ways that are consistent with
  gender stereotypes, they are viewed as less
  competent leaders (too soft).
• When women act in ways that are inconsistent with
  such stereotypes, theyre considered unfeminine
  (too tough).

24
Predicament 2-Catalyst

• The High Competence Threshold Women
  leaders face higher standards and lower rewards
  than men leaders!
• Respondents comments revealed that women leaders
  are subjected to higher competency standards. On
  top of doing their job, women
• Have to prove that they can lead, over and over
  again.
• Have to manage stereotypical expectations
  constantly (e.g., too tough or too soft).

25
Predicament 3-Catalyst

• Competent but Disliked Women leaders are
  perceived as competent or likeable, but rarely
  both!
• Respondents comments revealed that when women
  behave in ways that are traditionally valued for
  leaders (e.g., assertiveness), they tend to be
  seen as competent, but also not as effective
  interpersonally as women who adopt a more
  stereotypically feminine style.

26
Womens Workplace Misconceptions 1It wont
matter that I am a woman.

• FACT The question is not whats legal or whats
  right its a fact of life that gender by and
  large determines career experiences.
• Being female simply is different in the
  workplace.
• How far you get, the jobs you land, the kinds of
  opportunities youre offered, the salary you
  receive . . . all of these will probably be
  different for you as a woman than they are for
  your male colleagues.
• Sheila Wellington Catalyst, Be Your Own
  Mentor, Random House, 2001.

27
Womens Workplace Misconceptions 2 Sure,
theres a mythology about women, but it wont
affect me.

• FACT No matter how competent, strong, talented,
  or smart you are, the myths about women can cloud
  your future when you least expect it.
• Wellington Catalyst

28
Womens Workplace Misconceptions 3 As soon as
I prove myself, theyll forget the gender thing.

• FACT Senior managers are still mostly men, and
  many male managers who havent worked with many
  women tend to make generalizations about them.
• Wellington Catalyst

29
Womens Workplace Misconceptions 4 Time will
solve my workplace problems.

• FACT Time is just as likely to work against
  you.
• Wellington Catalyst

30
21 Ways Women in Management Shoot Themselves in
the Foot

• 1. Wanting to have it all
• 2. Not having a personal life plan
• 3. Tolerating gender bias
• 4. Misunderstanding what is called the business
  cycle of success, i.e., make the boss look good
  and he/she will provide what you need for success
• 5. Not separating the personal from the
  professional
• 6. Thinking we are both speaking the same
  language.
• 7. Avoiding self promotion
• 8. Lacking executive presence by hesitating to
  speak up and speak strongly.
• 9. Not looking and acting the part
• 10. Not getting a mentor
• 11. Acting like a girl instead of a woman

John M. McKee, Wheatmark Publishing, 2006
31
21 Ways Women in Management Shoot Themselves in
the Foot

• 12. Getting caught up in old boy stereotypes
• 13. Not acting like a power broker
• 14 Helping men who are less competent-applies to
  peers not ones subordinates
• 15. Failing to put a screw-up into perspective
• 16. Failing to blow off steam
• 17. Shirking away from negotiations
• 18. Acting too aggressively-substitute
  assertively
• 19. Failing to make the required investment
  (Relates to number one)
• 20. Viewing the workplace as husband-hunting
  country
• 21. Falling into womens roles

John M. McKee, Wheatmark Publishing, 2006
32
Coping Strategies for Women

• When asked about the strategies that they use to
  deal with double-bind dilemmas, women leaders
  recommend using one or more of the following
• 1. Talk openly about the issue. Whether it is an
  inequitable situation, an inappropriate comment,
  or a statement that unfairly generalizes about
  womens abilities, bring it out in the open. Show
  them otherwise.

33
Coping Strategies for Women (Contd.)

• 2. Become visible do not be afraid to showcase
  your skills and accomplishments seek high-level
  visible assignments speak up at meetings.
• 3. Use clear and effective communication. Let
  people know what you want (e.g., assignments,
  aspirations, career development) and ask a lot of
  questions.
• 4. Minimize the gender issue. Shift attention
  away from gender.

34
Lets Look at Some Facts!
Just the facts, Sir!
35
Only Five Occupations Where Women Earn As Much
Or More Than Men

• Hazardous material removal workers (1.09 to
  mens 1.00)
• Telecommunications line installers and repairers
  (slightly more than 1.00)
• Meeting and convention planners (even)
• Dining room or cafeteria workers (even)
• Construction trade helpers (even)
• U.S. Census Bureau--2000 Census Data

36
Some Other Facts, Maam

• Nearly 65 million women over age 16 work today, a
  labor force participation rate of 60.
• 39.5 of women in the labor force are mothers.
• Among working mothers, 72.2 have children under
  18 years of age, and nearly 64.8 have children
  under 6 years.
• Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population
  Survey, U.S. Department of Labor.

37
Some Other Facts, Maam

• Job and family responsibilities put a larger
  burden on women than on men.
• Laws and a fundamental sense of fairness have
  attempted to level the playing field for women
  in the workplace in the U.S.
• While the wages for women in similar jobs are
  only 77 of what men earn, there are some
  rational explanations for this phenomenon other
  than bias.
• Women are now attending college in higher rates
  than men which should stand them well in the
  future for gaining parity in the work place and
  particularly in what are now male-dominated
  professions.

38
Some Other Facts, Maam

• More men are becoming Mr. Moms. However,
  according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, just
  5.6 of married couples feature a wife who works
  and a husband who doesnt.
• In the post-industrial era and the shift away
  from factory jobs to office jobs women are taking
  these positions that emphasize brain, not brawn.
• Women now fill nearly half the posts in the
  executive, administrative and managerial
  professions which is up a third from two decades
  ago.

39
Some Other Facts, Maam

• One marriage in nine features an alpha earner
  wife who earns 60 of the familys income.
• In 30.7 of married households with a working
  wife, the wifes earnings exceeded the husbands
  in 2001.
• Many women, like men, have concluded that they
  prefer working to child rearing.
• So, is American destined to become more
  feminized as working women put their stamp on
  jobs and politics?

40
Some Other Facts, Maam

• The number of mothers who stay home full time has
  risen nearly 13 in the last decade. Roughly one
  in three U.S. kids under 15 has a mother at home
  full time. The equivalent figure for fathers is
  under 1.
• The number of stay-at-home fathers has risen by
  18 since 1994. Yet, children under 15 are 56
  times more likely to live with a stay-at-home
  mother than with a stay-at-home father.

Joan C. Williams, Unbending Gender Why Work and
Family Conflict and What To Do About It.
41
Some Other Facts, Maam

• Few mothers work overtime 95 of mothers work
  less than 50 hours per week year-round during the
  key career-building yearsbecause those are the
  key child-rearing years.
• Mothers and fathers in the U.S. face an economy
  that offers fast track jobs at 50 hours per
  week, or dead end jobs (many at 20 to 25 hours
  per week).
• This leaves mothers facing three unattractive
  choices (1) remain in a good job that keeps
  them away from home 10 to 12 hours a day (2)
  take a job with depressed wages, few benefits and
  little or no advancement (3) quit their jobs.

Joan C. Williams, Unbending Gender Why Work and
Family Conflict and What To Do About It.
42
Some Other Facts, Maam

• When mothers drop out of the workforce, recent
  studies show that fathers work more overtime and
  contribute less to household work and childcare.
• When couples divorce, it is more likely mothers
  who experience a sharp decline in economic
  status, often descending into poverty. Nearly
  40 of divorced mothers are poor.
• Employees in 2004 worked 44 hours per week at
  their main or only job. Adding in hours from
  other jobs the per-week increases to 46 hours.

Joan C. Williams, Unbending Gender Why Work and
Family Conflict and What To Do About It.
43
Strategies for Survival
44
Know Federal Laws Pertaining to Women in the
Workplace

• Equal Pay Act of 1963--Prohibits pay differences
  for men and women doing equal work.
• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (as
  amended)--Prohibits discrimination in employment
  based on race, color, religion, sex, or national
  origin.
• Age Discrimination Employment Act of 1967 (as
  amended)--Prohibits discrimination in employment
  against persons over 40 restricts mandatory
  retirement.

45
Know the Federal Laws Pertaining to Women in the
Workplace (Contd.)

• Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978--Prohibits
  employment discrimination against pregnant
  workers.
• Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993--Allows
  employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave with job
  guarantees for childbirth, adoption, or family
  illness.

46
Bridge the Wage Gap(AAUW Educational Foundation)

• Integrate college majors and occupations
• Promote careers in science, technology,
  engineering and math in ways that appeal to girls
  and women
• Encourage and train women to negotiate for better
  quality jobs and pay
• Support mothers in the workplace
• Encourage employers to offer high quality
  part-time employment opportunities
• Protect and extend family Medical Leave Act of
  1993
• Support high quality child care in conjunction
  with other family friendly policies
• End gender discrimination

47
Other Key Strategies

• Regulatory and legal mechanisms
• Affirmative action
• Awareness training
• Equal opportunity
• Flexible working arrangements/hours
• Mentoring and coaching
• Monitoring organizational practices
• Management training

48
Find Networking Pathways

• Seek high-visibility assignments.
• Volunteer for cross-organizational projects.
• Seek out people in other departments with whom
  you have common ground.
• Call someone whose work youve heard about and
  talk about it.
• Attend training programs and presentations.
• Join community projects supported by your
  organization.
• Try the coffee machine in another department.
• Find a mentor.

49

• Encourage Supportive Work Places
• Employers (universities) must create
  supportive workplace environments for female
  managers/workers.
• Managers/employees must work to keep job
  demands in check.

50
Supportive Work Places(Contd.)

• Supportive workplaces help women be more
  effective as managers, parents, and human beings!
• In turn the organization becomes more productive!

51
Supportive Work Places (Contd.)

• The quality of women managers and workers jobs
  and the supportiveness of their employers are the
  most powerful predictors of productivity, which
  facilitates
• Commitment to organization success
• Loyalty
• Job performance
• Job satisfaction
• Retention

• .

52
Supportive Work Places (Cont.d)

• Supervisor support
• Supportiveness of workplace culture
• Co-worker relations
• Flexible work arrangements
• Anti-discrimination
• Mentoring

53
Apply the Woman-Friendly Workplace Test

• How many women are there in senior management,
  and at what levels?
• What is the career path for this job (What would
  be the next position up)?
• What are the opportunities to move from line to
  staff and back again?
• How are work assignments made? Do supervisors
  ad-lib them or is there a formal process that
  management uses to make decisions?

54
Apply the Woman-Friendly Workplace Test

• What is the work culture like?
• Is there a formal process for performance
  appraisal?
• Is there a formal mentoring program? How does it
  work?
• Is there a womens network? What does it do?
• What kind of training and development is offered?

55
Apply the Woman-Friendly Workplace Test

• What flexible work arrangements are available?
  Do people use them?
• How much control would someone at my level have
  over her own schedule?

56
Axioms for Advancement(Sheila Wellington
Catalyst)

• Axiom 1. The best isnt good enough.
• Axiom 2. Time is of the essence.
• Axiom 3. If you dont blow your horn,
  nobody else will.
• Axiom 4. Expertise impresses.
• Axiom 5. Nothing comes to she who
  waits.
• Axiom 6. Its not just universities that
  need to diversify.
• Axiom 7. Fortune favors the brave.
• Axiom 8. Money matters.

57
Pitfalls of Male-Female Mentoring(Wellington,
Catalyst)

• Stereotypical gender assumptions
• Paternalism
• Sexual tension
• Innuendo from others about the true nature of the
  relationship
• Jealousy of respective spouses
• The inability of male mentors to meet specific
  needs such as how to deal with bias
• Differing preferences in social activities

58
Secrets of Success
59
Secrets of Success from Proven Female
WinnersNewsweek, September 25, 2006

• Be competitive. You have to want to win. Too
  often women feel they have to be nice. Dont
  be!--Liz Lange, CEO of Liz Lange Maternity.
• Its not about friendship. Women want everyone
  to like them, but it doesnt really matter what
  people think of you. Its that you get the job
  done and deliver results. --Renee Edelman,
  Senior VP of Edelman, Inc.

60
Secrets of Success from Proven Female
WinnersNewsweek, September 25, 2006

• Stand up for yourself. Protect your interest
  and the interests of your staff. If anyone is
  going to mess with that, cut them out like a
  cancer.--Donatella Arpaia, Restauranteur.
• Trust your instincts. There are a lot of
  naysayers out there. Shut out negative noise and
  go for it.--Ms. Lange

61
Secrets of Success from Proven Female
WinnersNewsweek, September 25, 2006

• Always project confidence. Presentation is key.
  When someone asks How are you? dont go into a
  litany of whats wrong with your life. Instead
  present yourself as in control and happy.--Cathy
  Schulman, Oscar winning film producer
• Own your success. Say goodbye to fear and
  insecurity. Have confidence in your decisions
  and make them.--Ms. Arapia

62
Secrets of Success from Proven Female
WinnersNewsweek, September 25, 2006

• Reach out to other women. Dont be shy. Start
  each day by noting colleagues accomplishments
  with a quick call or email. We dont have golf,
  so create other communities of support.--Ms.
  Lange
• Insist on being well paid. Dont view wanting
  money as inelegant or not classy. Men make
  decisions on money. Why shouldnt we.--Ms.
  Schulman

63
Secrets of Success from Proven Female
WinnersNewsweek, September 25, 2006

• Its OK to make mistakes. Cut your losses and
  move on. Dont obsess over things.--Ms. Arpaia
• Be a problem solver. If something on your desk
  seems difficult to deal with, tackle it first.
  Big problems are an opportunity to grow.--Ms.
  Schulman

64
Making Your Life Work

• Life Strategy 1 Get help.
• Life Strategy 2 Manage your time scrupulously.
• Life Strategy 3 Set priorities and make
  trade-offs.
• Life Strategy 4 Reassess your tradeoffs
  frequently.
• Life Strategy 5 Hold the right job.
• Life Strategy 6 Do some things for yourself.
• Life Strategy 7 Assume a positive frame of
  reference.

65
Conclusions Women in Mgt.

• The place of women in management is to a large
  degree driven by a culture of male dominance and
  a system of patriarchy. These are learned
  behaviors.
• Society has dictated to some degree a form of
  occupational segregation that sees 80 of women
  in 7 of 419 census occupations.
• While half the managerial positions in the U.S.
  are now filled by women, very few females hold
  executive management positions in the large
  American corporations.
• Unlike men, career women continue to bear the
  major responsibility for child rearing and
  homemaking responsibilities.

66
Conclusions (Contd.)

• Job and family responsibilities put a larger
  burden on women than men.
• Laws and a fundamental sense of fairness have
  attempted to level the playing field for women
  in the workplace in the U.S.
• While the wages for women in similar jobs are
  only 76.5 of what men earn, there are some
  rational explanations for this phenomenon other
  than bias.
• Women are now attending college in higher rates
  than men which should stand them well in the
  future for gaining parity in the work place and
  particularly in what are now male-dominated
  professions.

67
Some Pertinent Statistics
68
Other Interesting Information Appropo of Women in
the Workplace

• Some Pertinent Statistics
• The Judith Rosener Thesis
• The Deborah Tannen Thesis

69
Women in the Workplace

• Women comprise 46.4 of the U.S. labor force.
• Women comprise 50.3 of management, professional
  and related occupations.
• Yet there are only 13 female CEOs out of 500 in
  the top Fortune 500 companies.

Women Take Care, Men Take Charge
Stereotyping of U.S. Business Leaders Exposed,
Catalyst, 2005.
70
Enrollment of Men Women 2005-06Degree-Granting
Institutions

• Total 4-Yr. 2-Yr.
• Men 7,516,693 4,775,557 2,569,392
• Women 9,970,782 6,223,863 3,614,837
• Total 17,487,475 10,999,420 6,184,229
• Men 43 44 41
• Women 57 56 59

NCES Digest 2007
71
Degrees Awarded to Men and Women 1968-69 (NCES
Digest 2005)

• Male Female Total
• Associate 105,661 77,618 183,279
• Bachelors 410,595 318,250 728,845
• Masters 121,531 72,225 193,756
• 1st Profess. 33,595 1,519 5,114
• Doctors 22,722 3,436 26,158
• TOTAL 694,104 473,048 1,167,152
• of Total 59 41 100

72
Estimated Degrees Awarded to Men and Women
2007-08 (NCES Digest 2007)

• Male Female Total
• Associate 262,000 437,000 699,000
• Bachelors 655,000 930,000 1,585,000
• Masters 244,000 387,000 631,000
• 1st Prof. 45,300 44,000 89,300
• Doctors 27,100 28,200 55,300
• TOTAL 1,233,400 1,826,200 3,059,600
• Of Total 40 60 100

73
Median Annual Earnings, High School v. College
(2004 Constant Dollars)

• 1980 Male Female Fasof M
• H.S. or GED 38,800 25,500 66
• Bachelors 46,300 34,100 74
• H.S. as of Bachelors 84 84 75
• 2005 Male Female Fasof M
• H.S. or GED 29,600 23,500 79
• Bachelors 48,400 39,500 78
• H.S. as of Bachelors 63 6368

NCES Digest 2007
74
Brides, Grooms Babies

• First Avg.
  Avg. Children Per
• Marriage Brides Age Grooms Age
  1,000 Women
• 1960 20.3 22.8 345
• 1970 20.8 23.5 248
• 1980 22.0 24.7 184
• 1990 23.9 26.1 208
• 1998 25.0 26.9 201
• 2005 25.3 26.9 201
• Source Bureau of the Census and National Center
  for Health Statistics. The increase in children
  after 1980 is due mainly to the rise in the
  Hispanic population with its high birth rate.

75
The Judith Rosener Thesis
Dr. Judy B. Rosener is emerita professor in The
Paul Merage School of Business, University of
California, Irvine
76
The Rosener Thesis

• Women managers are proving that effective leaders
  do not come from one mold.
• They have not necessarily pursued the standard
  command-and-control model typically associated
  with successful male managers or the first
  generation of female managers.
• Instead they are drawing on skills and attitudes
  they developed from their shared experience as
  women.
• They are succeeding because of--not in spite
  of--certain characteristics generally considered
  to be feminine and inappropriate in leaders.
• Men are more apt to use what is called
  transactional leadership, and the exercise of
  legitimate power.

77
Rosener Thesis (Contd.)

• Women will more commonly use transformational
  leadership where subordinates are persuaded to
  transform their own self-interest into the
  interest of the group through concern for a
  broader goal.
• These women leaders more than men will encourage
  participation, share power and information,
  enhance other peoples self -worth, and get
  others excited about their work.
• The different approach by women is attributed to
  the socialization of females (average age of 51
  in the Rosener survey), and to the career paths
  they have taken.

78
Rosener Thesis (Contd.)

• Women are socialized to be wives, mothers,
  community volunteers, teachers and nurses. In
  all these roles they are are supposed to be
  cooperative, supportive, understanding, gentle,
  and to provide service to others.
• Men are socialized to be competitive, strong,
  tough, decisive, and in control. This may
  explain why men are less likely to be interactive
  (consultative) leaders.
• Women have been shunted into staff career paths
  while men have followed career paths that
  offeredline experience.

79
Rosener Thesis (Contd.)

• Attributing interactive leadership directly to
  being female is a mistake. Women are capable of
  making their way through corporations by adhering
  to the traditional corporate model. For some
  women this may be the preferable style. It is
  important to note some men use the
  transformational leadership style.
• As the workforce increasingly demands
  participation and the economic environment
  increasingly requires rapid change, interactive
  leadership may emerge as the management style of
  choice for many organizations.

80
Criticism of the Rosener Thesis

• Roseners research methodology was impaired. She
  fell into the trap of asking men and women at
  work to describe their individual styles. Men
  and women tend to stereotype their behavior
  according to gender-appropriate behavior when
  self reporting. No woman wants to indicate she is
  masculine and no man wants to indicate he is
  feminine. Social controls more than
  socialization account for peoples interests and
  behavior. It is time to reconsider the
  excessive and inappropriate sex typing that takes
  place. The category is people, not men and
  women.--Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Distinguished
  Professor, Graduate Center, City University of
  New York.

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Criticism of the Rosener Thesis

• Judith Rosener makes a valuable contribution to
  our understanding of the interactive leadership
  style associated with women. The
  command-and-control leadership style of men was
  suitable to a manufacturing economy. As we move
  toward an information-service economy, I believe
  we will find the interactive mode more
  effective.--Felice N. Schwartz, President,
  Catalyst, New York, New York.
• There is comfort in getting some proof for a
  theory that many of us have been adhering to for
  a long time women should hold on to and be proud
  of their transformational leadership style and
  not try to adapt themselves to the transactional
  style that men have preferred so far.--Monique R.
  Siegel, MRS Management Related Services AG,
  Zurich, Switzerland

82
Criticism of the Rosener Thesis

• Ms. Rosener believes that womens presumably more
  nurturing, domestic orientation produces personal
  qualities that make them categorically different
  from men as leaders. Her underlying hypothesis
  is in my opinion both scientifically wrong and
  socially worrisome. Research suggests that
  neither gender can claim superiority in
  management effectiveness nor a monopoly on a
  given leadership style. Approaches to
  understanding differences whether they be in
  gender, race, religion, ethnicity, or age should
  not be based on faulty stereotypes that define
  the appropriate and natural behavior for a
  given category.--Jeffrey A. Sonnenfeld, Profesor
  of Organization and Management, Emory Business
  School, Atlanta, Georgia

83
Criticism of the Rosener Thesis

• Judy Roseners findings are consistent with my
  own observation of managers in numerous
  organizations. Interactive leadership styles can
  and do work--and perhaps a greater proportion of
  women are more comfortable with full
  participation than men. But she may over credit
  womens socialization as the cause of their
  behavior. The command-and-control style of
  leadership is increasingly less appropriate for
  either men or women.--Allan R. Cohen, Walter H.
  Carpenter Professor of Management, Babson
  College, Wellesley, Massachusetts.

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The Deborah Tannen Thesis
Deborah Tannen is on the linguistics department
faculty at Georgetown University, where she is
one of only two in the College of Arts and
Sciences who hold the distinguished rank of
University Professor
85
Gender Related Communication Styles (Deborah
Tannen)

• Women prefer to use communication for rapport
  building. In contrast, men prefer to use talk
  primarily as a means to preserve independence and
  status by displaying knowledge and skill.
• Men prefer to work their problems out by
  themselves, whereas women prefer to talk out
  solutions with another person.
• Women are more likely to compliment the work of
  coworkers, while men are more likely to be
  critical.

86
Gender Related Communication Styles (Deborah
Tannen (Contd.)

• Men tend to be more directive in their
  conversation, while women emphasize politeness.
• Women tend to be more conciliatory when facing
  differences, while men become more intimidating.
• Men are more interested than women in calling
  attention to their accomplishments or hogging
  recognition. As a result, men are more likely to
  dominate discussion during meetings.

87
Debora Tannens Socialization Theory
Men Independent Asymetrical
Contest Hierarchy Self Display Status
Women Close Sharing Symetrical
Community Connection Rapport
Equality