MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY

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MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY

• Chapter 7 pgs.156-184

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Preview of the Lessons

• Introduction
• Overview of the theories in the 1960s and 70s.
• Building a Paradigm
• Robert Merton
• The Functional Analysis
• Information Flow Theory
• The Diffusion of Innovation Theory

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• Klappers Phnomenistic Theory
• Mass Entertainment Theory
• Elite Pluralism Theory
• Power Elite Theory

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• MIDLE-RANGE THEORY
• A theory composed of empirical generalizations
  based on empirical facts.

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• Introduction
• The 1950s 1960s in the US was the era of the
  studies on the effects of television viewing.
  Research questions such as how was TV effecting
  the nation? What were the negative effects that
  could undermining the moral fabrics of the
  society?
• Schramm, Lyle, Lowery, DeFleur

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• In 1960s 1970s saw the Mass Communication
  research was dominated with the Limited Effects
  Paradigm (e.g. influenced by Lazarsfeld
  Hovland)
• These findings addresses important troubling
  questions concerning the role of the media.
  Results presented were over generalization and
  made sweeping assumptions based on marginal
  evidence.

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• The view of the media has limited effects led to
  other theories, namely the Functional analysis,
  Information Flow Theory, Diffusion of Information
  Theory, Phnomenistic Theory, Mass Entertainment
  Theory and Elite Pluralism Theory.

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Paradigm Shift

• The old paradigm (thinking) stated that Media
  influence some people under some conditions but
  not most people under most conditions.
• The new paradigm is to further explore which
  media influence on which people and under what
  conditions.
• To help materialized these objectives elite
  funding (e.g. Rockfeller Foundation, CBS,
  National Science Foundation government
  corporate bodies) sponsored these research.

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• Robert Merton (1949) provided a conceptual
  foundation for the new paradigm. He wrote two
  books Social theory and Social structure (1949)
  On the Theoretical Society (1967) that led to the
  development of the Middle-Range Theory.

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The Middle Range Theory

• Middle Range Theory believed that the future of
  social sciences lay in producing, collecting and
  applying empirical generalizations constantly
  discovering new research questions.

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• Mertons idea of Middle-Range Theory is as
  follows
• 1. It consist of limited sets of assumptions
  from which hypotheses were derived and
  confirmed by empirical evidence.
• 2. These theories were not separated but rather
  they belongs to network.

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• 3. These theories were extremely abstract.
• 4. This theory cuts across between
  micro- sociologist problems.
• 5. The theory acknowledged missing facts /
  shortcomings.

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A. Functional Analysis

• The study of the media for their contribution to
  the society It created a system of balance.
  (value -good or bad- is neutral)
• That society consisted of complex set of
  interrelated activities , each of which support
  or dependent on each other.

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• Functionalist supported the idea that media has
  its functions as well as dysfunctions (Lasswell
  Wright, 1960)

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• Lasswell Wright (1960) Functional analysis of
  mass communication
• FUNCTIONS
• 1. Surveillance informs, provide news warning
  of natural dangers.
• 2. Correlation selects, interprets, criticizes.
• 3. Transmissions of culture teaches, increase
  cohesion.

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• 4. Entertainment mass culture arts, music etc.
  

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• DYSFUNCTION
• 1. Narcotization, over-exposure
• 2. Enhance conformity, stereotyping, creates
  pseudo images.
• 3. Reduces variety of subcultures,
  standardization
• 4. Non-entertainment

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• Manifest Functions
• Intended and observed consequences of media use.
• Latent Functions
• - Unintended and less easily observed
  consequences of media use.

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• WEAKNESS
• Accepting the status quo.
• Dysfunctions easily balance by functions.
• Negative functions easily balanced by positive
  functions.
• Rarely permits the conclusions about medias
  roles.

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Strength Weakness of the Functional Analysis

• STRENGTH
• Positions of media their influence in larger
  social system.
• Offers balance view of the medias role.
• Is based on empirical research.

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B. Information Flow Theory

• This is a theory of how information moves from
  media to audiences to have specific intended
  effects (information diffusion theory).
• The need to know what the public need to do in
  times of crisis. The need to know what their
  leaders were doing to deal with threats from
  abroad is important,

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• The flow of information from elites to the public
  was essential to counter the threats (e.g.
  communists ideology, outbreak of epidemic
  diseases etc.)

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• In 1950s many surveys field experiments were
  conducted to access the flow of information from
  media to mass audience.
• Among them (Frankouser McCombs ,1971) did their
  studies on access of media effectiveness in
  transmitting informing the mass audience. The
  work was pattern after persuasion research.
  Survey research were used to gather data.

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• Persuasion research had identified numerous
  barriers to persuasion e.g. namely education,
  amount of media use for news, interest in news,
  talking about news, hard news (politics,
  science, world events) vs soft news (sports,
  entertainments, human interest etc).
• E.g. in one instant leaflets were dropped to
  every household in one small town in Washington.
  The result was not very encouraging only very
  few people return the leaflets .

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• That Case No2. survey team visited certain homes
  and that they could earn 1 lb of free coffee by
  teaching a coffee slogans to their neighbors. It
  produces mixed results.
• One hand almost every family had heard about the
  free coffee slogan try to reproduced it.
  Unfortunately many gave the wrong slogan. There
  was a distortion from the original slogan. Many
  people are confused distorted. i.e. free gifts
  were insufficient to guarantee the flow of
  information.

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• Possible dissertation misunderstanding was
  high. Even if the media deliver accurate
  information of news but when it reaches most
  people it might be the wrong information.
• The most important limitation of information
  flow theory is that the message must be
  simplistic, liner source dominated (from the
  point of view of the source) e.g. authoritative
  source media government etc.

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Information Flow Theory

• STRENGTHS
• 1. Examine the process of mass communication in
  real world.
• 2. Provides theoretical basis for successful
  public information campaigns.
• 3. Identify barriers to information flow.
• 4. Helps understand information flow during
  crisis.

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• WEAKNESSES
• 1. Too simplistic, liner, source dominated.
• 2. Assumes ignorant, apathetic audience.
• 3. Fails to consider utility or value of
  information for receiver.
• 4. Is too accepting of status quo.

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C. Information Diffusion Theory

• This theory explains how innovations are
  introduced and adopted by various communities.

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The Diffusion Theory

• Rogers (1962) combines all i.e. the theory of
  information flow, personal influence including
  that of (anthropology, sociology rural
  agriculture).
• He viewed thousands (10,000) of studies.
  Information diffusion theory guided his research
  facilitate interpretation of it.

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• He extended the Lazarfelds original Two-step
  flow theory (the role of intermediaries) with
  diffusion theory was so successful that
  information flow theory became known as
  Information Diffusion Theory.

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• When new technological innovation was adopted
  they will pass through several stages before they
  are widely adopted.

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• Stages of Rogers innovation decision process
  (mental five levels) are as follows
• Knowledge
• Persuasion
• Decision
• Implementation
• Confrontation

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• Stages of Rogers decision-making process are as
  follows
• 1. Innovators (Awareness),
• 2. Early Adopters,
• 3. Early Majority (Opinion
• 4. Leaders),
• 5. Late Majority (Opinion leaders Followers )
  and
• 6. Laggards

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• EARLY ADOPTERS
• People who adopt an innovation early even before
  significant amounts of information are received.
• Opinion leaders
• Opinion followers
• Laggards

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Significant of Rogers contributions

• a. Diffusion contribute little to the role of
  mass media.
• b. Media only creates awareness.
• c. Only the early adopters directly influence
  by media contents.
• c. Diffusion efforts led by change agent (early
  adopters opinion leaders)

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• Media only draw attention to innovations as the
  basis of group discussions led by change agents.
• Information diffusion theory was consistent with
  limited effect thinking.

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• The Diffusion Implications
• Rogerss theory was very influential.
• During the cold war (50s 60s) between U.S./
  U.S.S.R, US using this theory propagate
  agricultural revolution in the Third World
  countries. Rogerss theory became a training
  manual. Change agents around the world were
  brought to Michigan State University to learn the
  theory.

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• Many of these people became academics in their
  home countries.
• This theory was very consistent with most
  findings from effect surveys and persuasion
  experiments, very practical.

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• Limitations of this theory were that although
  innovations were adopted often times these
  innovation were not well understood or even
  desired or did not guarantee its long terms
  success (e.g. too mush fertilizers in India or
  complex machinery breaks down as soon the change
  agent left)

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• STRENGTHS
• Integrates large amount of empirical findings
  into useful theory.
• Provides practical guide for information
  campaigns in US abroad.

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• WEAKNESSES
• It is a liner and source dominated theory
• Underestimate the power of the media esp. the
  contemporary media
• Stimulates adaptation by groups that dont
  understand or want the innovations

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D. Phnomenistic Theory (Reinforcement Theory)

• This theory reveals that media are rarely the
  sole cause of effects are relatively powerless
  when compare with other social factors.

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• Developed by Klapper (1960).
• He argued that media hardly had any direct
  effects powerless when compare with other
  social psychological factors such as social
  status, group members, attitudes, education etc.

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• According to Klapper
• 1. Mass communication does not serve sufficient
  cause of audience effects. Effects are cause by
  other mediating factors and influences.
• 2. The mediating factors are only a contributory
  agent but not a sole cause.

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• Klappers argued that there are just too many
  barriers to media influence for drastic changes
  to occur except under very unusual circumstances

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• STRENGTH
• Combines impressive amount of research into
  convincing theory.
• Highlight roles of mediating variables in mass
  communication process.
• Refutes mass society notions

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• WEAKNESSES
• Overstates the roles of mediating factors.
• Too accepting status quo position.
• Downplays reinforcements as important media
  effect.
• Too specific of its own time.

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E. Mass Entertainment Theory

• This theory supports the idea that TV other
  mass media entertain average people thus
  performs a vital social function at extremely low
  cost.

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• Mendelsons (1966) argued that the influence of
  media were widely misunderstood.
• He blamed the critics of media for continuing
  this misconception for reasons of self interest
  ignoring empirical research findings.

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• TV entertainment did not disrupt high culture but
  rather give average people a more attractive
  alternative to operas or musical concerts.
• A small number of people might suffer because
  they became addicted to TV entertainment.

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• STRENGTH
• Stresses on media influence
• Provides explanation as why people seek
  entrainment from media.
• WEAKNESSES
• Too accepting the status quo
• Paints negative picture of average people and
  their use of media.

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F. Elite Pluralism

• This theory argued for political information in
  media serves little purpose except to inform the
  handful of people who are already well informed
  about politics already engaged in political
  activity they represent all others
  intelligently.
• Media have little ability to directly influence
  people.

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• ELITE implies a political system in which
  power is ultimately in the hands of small group
  influential persons a political elite.
• PLURALISM refers to cultural, social and
  political diversity . It implies a political
  system in which many diverse groups are given
  equal status representation.

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• Berelson, Lazarsfeld McPhee (1954)
• noted important inconsistencies between
  empirical observations of voters the
  assumptions that classical democratic theory.
• Classical democratic theory assumed that
  everyone must be well informed politically
  active.

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• But the new perspective is that average people
  didnt know or care about politics. Voting
  decisions were more likely to be based on
  personal influence by other who were close to
  them. People voted as their friends, family
  coworkers told them to vote.

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• The important factor was not the quality of the
  voting decisions but their own stability.

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• STRENGTH
• Explain the stable social political system of
  U.S.
• Based on lots of empirical data.
• Well developed theory.

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• WEAKNESS
• Legitimizes undemocratic view of US politics.
• The conclusion goes beyond empirical evidence.
• Accepting the status quo.
• Paint negative picture of average people.

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G. Power Elite Theory

• This theory argued US political power was not
  decentralized across a broad range of
  pluralistic society. But it was very centralized
  in a small group of military-industrial-complex
  leaders.

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• The questions he posed were pointing to the fact
  that the Power Elite was in operation.
• These questions were as follows
• Why so many minority groups gets so little help.
• Why did average people feels so powerless.
• Why did people choose to remain ignorant about
  politics.
• Why did the same people serves over over again
  as leaders.

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• Why were the interest of the few often pursued
  at the expanse of average people.
• Why did political parties make no efforts to
  educate people about their interests of the few
  so often at the expanse of average people.
• Why did the mass media tend to reinforced the
  status quo rather than inspired people take
  actions against pertinent issues of societys
  concerned.

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• In the US these issues surfaced a decade later as
  part of the broad based challenged to the
  American political system.

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