Inferencing, allusions, intertextuality and metaphors

1
Inferencing, allusions, intertextuality and
metaphors

• Translation processes imply cognition.
• Cognitive analysis of the translation process has
  shifted the focus from TEXT to MENTAL PROCESSES.
• One of the main features of cognition is
  INFERENCING the right allusions.
• Example from Newsweek
• Serge Cardin, a Canadian MP, had to apologize to
  the House for humming the theme song from The
  Godfather while Public Works Minister Alfonso
  Gagliano, who is of Italian descent, addressed
  Parliament.

2

• Why did the MP have to apologize? Is it for
  humming, which is a breach of parliamentary
  formality?
• What is the relevance of the reference to The
  Godfather? Is it just because this film is a
  classic?
• Why did the author mention Italian descent?
• Which are the relevant parts of this extract?
• What do you infer?
• INFERENCE INVOLVES CONTEXT

3
RELEVANCE THEORY (by Sperber and Wilson)

• Communication starts with a STIMULUS (verbal or
  non verbal) humming a song
• This stimulus guides the hearer (or reader)
  towards a precise meaning intended by the speaker
  (INFORMATIVE INTENTION).
• Communication and relevance would be compromised
  if the interaction of stimulus (humming a tune),
  contextual assumptions (Godfather Mafia
  corrupt minister Italian descent) and
  interpretation (ethnic offence) were disturbed
  for any reason.
• This is what (often) happens when we do not see
  the point of a joke or the irony of something.

4

• RELEVANCE AND TRANSLATION
• What is the following? What is the source
  language? Try to translate it in our culture.
• Three friends - Aboriginal, Jew and Australian,
  spend each night together drinking beer in an
  outback (entroterra) pub.
• One night as they're leaving, a road-train
  (AusEng autotreno) comes through the town and
  kills all three. The next day, the publican
  (oste) is surprised to see the Australian - who
  assumed dead - walked through the door.
• The Australian tells him, "Well, we were all
  killed, but when we got to the pearly gates (le
  porte del paradiso), St. Peter said we could come
  back to earth if we pay him 20.""Well,
  obviously, you paid up, but what happened to your
  friends?""The jew's trying to haggle him down to
  10, and the aboriginal is trying to convince him
  that the government will pay for it."
• TRANSLATING JOKES IS ONE OF THE MOST CHALLENGING
  WORKS.

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• As far as humour is concerned, no matter how well
  the translator knows the target language,
  cultural references and polysemous items may
  involve them in long and complicated
  explanations, after which the recipient rarely
  reacts with a laugh.
• Thus, a common linguistic code is definitely not
  all that is needed in order to appreciate humour.
  
• Language and culture are intertwined and without
  shared knowledge between sender and recipient, a
  common linguistic code will be almost of no help.

6
Text register in translation and text, genre and
discourse shifts in translation

• Socio-linguistic varieties language changes if
  the context/situation change.
• Translation must take into account all
  variations.
• G.B. Shaw Pygmalion
• The flower girl I am a good girl, I am.
• The flower girl Aint no call to meddle with me,
  he aint.

7

• The Flower Girl is a Cockney user, her
  variation is a dialect, it has geographic
  origins.
• Variations in the use of language are called
  registers.
• One person may use different registers.
• We all use different registers.
• Use-related varieties have to do with ones
  occupation and the situation in which language is
  used.

8
Field, mode and tenor

• These variables are important to remember
• FIELD for ex. legal, journalistic, scientific,
  literary etc.
• MODE written or spoken language.
• TENOR level of formality (style) which is the
  crucial aspect.
• Levels of formality casual, informal, formal,
  frozen. Translate the following
• CASUAL
• Coming down the pub?
• INFORMAL
• What about going to the pub?
• FORMAL
• You are invited to accompany me to the pub.
• FROZEN/FIXED
• PLEASE ORDER PUB LUNCHES AT THE FOOD COUNTER.

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To sum up schematically
LEVELS OF FORMALITY (TENOR) LAWYERS DOCTORS EFL TEACHERS THE THREE O N THE LEFT ARE FIELDS
FROZEN QUEENS BENCH DIVISION ENTRANCE BLOOD BANK CLOSED ON BANK HOLIDAYS CAE PRACTICE MATERIALS ARE AVAILABLE HERE
FORMAL I put it to you mlud An accurate diagnosis can be made on the basis of a histological examination. Stop writing now and put your pens on your desk.
INFORMAL Did you do it? This wont hurt Say it again, Anne.
CASUAL His words are a total basket case. These bloody radiographers are useless You advanced? Fat chance! (slang)

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Lets get back to Pygmalion

• The cinematic version of P. is My Fair Lady,
  starring Audrey Hepburn as Eliza Dolittle (the
  Cockney flower girl).
• The story revolves around a bet made by the male
  protagonist who wants to change Eliza into an
  educated and refined person speaking with an RP.

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• In English, beyond regional (geographic)
  varieties we have very marked social varieties.
• The British need one or max. two sentences to
  decide if their interlocutors belong to the upper
  class, middle class or the many other classes in
  between.
• Eliza Dolittle is a working class Londoner (two
  connotations, social and geographic).
• Her Cockney was rendered into Italian through a
  strange mixture of South Italian dialects and
  accents, without any precise belonging.
• The purpose was to highlight Elizas bad use of
  language and the fact that Prof. Higgins wanted
  her to speak a good language (upper class
  accent).

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• However, social class Englishes are English.
• A mixture of Neapolitan, Apulian and Sicilian are
  not Italian.
• So?
• Whats the problem with dubbing and meaning?
• Eliza, at the beginning, says to her prof. that
  she wont pay him much money because she already
  knows English. She only needs phonetic help.
  Thats why we have the famous sentence used all
  over the film to train her right pronunciation
  THE RAIN IN SPAIN STAYS MAINLY IN THE PLAIN.
• This makes sense in English where she has to
  improve just her accent, but in Italian?
• Its not a question of accent only, but of
  dialect too.
• How is it possible to learn a good Italian by
  repeating over and over again the sentence
• la rana in Spagna gracida in campagna?

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Moreover

• There are some songs sung by Eliza and dubbed
  into Italian. The problem is that this Italian is
  perfect also at the beginning of the film when
  she cant speak properly.
• Another problem relates coherence.
• During a horse-race, Eliza answers the question
  Will it rain do you think? by using the famous
  sentence the rain in Spain pronounced in a
  perfect way.
• Obviously, in the Italian version this would make
  no sense, theres no connection between Pensate
  che pioverà? and la rana so this part was
  deleted.
• The problem is that the scene goes on with other
  similar tongue-twisters uttered by Eliza and the
  result is hilarious in English, while in Italian
  we dont understand why people around her laugh.

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• Texts are means to express and convey
  socio-cultural meanings.
• In this area the concept of intertextuality is
  central.
• Intertextuality is the mechanism through which
  textual elements convey meaning by virtue of
  their dependence on other texts.

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• Intertextual references can be horizontal and
  vertical (Mikhail Bakhtin)
• H. I. is the concrete, real reference or
  quotation from other texts.
• V. I. is not a real quotation but allusion.
• Allusion means an echo effect, when we read /
  listen to something and we think of other texts
  (biblical style, Shakesperean tone etc.)
• NO REAL QUOTATION
• SOMETHING IN THE TEXT REMINDS US OF SOMETHING
  ELSE (RECALLS)

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• For example, film adaptations, that is retellings
  of famous stories taking only some aspects and
  not the real words, are examples of V. I.
• Many contemporary retellings of Shakespeares
  plays through films - such as 10 Things I Hate
  About You, loosely based on Shakespeare's The
  Taming of the Shrew and She's the Man, based on
  his play Twelfth Night.
• The film Last Action Hero which also features an
  action retake on Hamlet uses intertextuality
  throughout.

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• Newspaper headlines are full of V.I.
• Silence of the damned (from Silence of the Lambs)
  (headline about a humanitarian crisis in West
  Africa)
• Blame in Spain (from Rain in Spain) (headline
  about a friction between Britain and Spain)
• The first headline could be easily translated in
  Italian with..?
• Il silenzio dei dannati (the Italian version of
  the movie is Il silenzio degli innocenti, theres
  only the replacement of one word).
• And the second?

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example

• Holiday high jinks (baldoria) at 5am land Euan in
  more trouble
• (Daily Telegraph)
• You dont probably catch the intertextuality
  here, but many British people would.
• In this newspaper headline referring to Euan
  Blair, Tonys son, the word Euan, especially
  when used in conjunction with trouble, for many
  British people in the summer of 2000 would have
  recalled images of a fun-loving teenager
  constantly causing embarrassment to his famous
  father.
• This means that also a simple first name or
  nickname make people think of other related
  facts.
• In Italy now il trota, Ruby

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• Prince takes arms against bad English
• Can you see intertextuality here?
• Prince here refers to the prince of Wales, but
  what follows are references to Shakespeares
  Hamlet.
• To be, or not to be, that is the
  questionWhether 'tis nobler in the mind to
  sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous
  fortune,Or to take arms against a sea of
  troubles

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Goodnight sweet prince

• These words are taken from?
• Hamlet
• From Hells last line Goodnight sweet prince.
• In the film The Big Lebowski Walter says,
  "Goodnight, sweet prince" at Donny's funeral.
• "Goodnight, sweet prince" is also said by a gang
  member after the shooting of Alex Murphy in
  Robocop.
• Hamlet is quoted in the Neil Jordan film,
  'Interview With the Vampire'. Claudia, the
  child-vampire, quotes "Goodnight sweet prince,
  may flights of devils sing thee to thy rest."

21
What about Dantes inferno?

• Dantes Inferno has as a primary character
  Virgil, the Augustan-era author of the Aeneid.
• Similarly, as Dante and Virgil descend through
  the circles of Hell, they encounter various
  characters from ancient literature, many of which
  are represented in Book 4 of the Aeneid, in which
  Aeneas visits the Underworld.
• For example, Cerberus, the three-headed dog and
  Medusa, the snaky-haired gorgon, just to name a
  few.

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Eliots the Waste Land is rich in intertextuality

• Eliot refers to Shakespeare, Baudelaire, St.
  Augustine, Chaucer, Sophocles, ancient mythology
  etc.
• The allusions to the work of Baudelaire are clear
  in the quotation closing the first part of
  Eliots poem
• You hypocrite lecteur! - mon semblable, - mon
  frère! which is the last line of Baudelaires
  poem Au Lecteur Tu le connais, lecteur, ce
  monstre délicat, Hypocrite lecteur,mon
  semblable,mon frère!

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• Chaucer opens his CT with a positive statement
  about April
• When fair April with his showers sweet,Has
  pierced the drought of March to the root's
  feetAnd bathed each vein in liquid of such
  power,Its strength creates the newly springing
  flowerEliot opens his WL with a negative
  statement about April (his intention is to
  recall Chaucer, but with the opposite
  effect)April is the cruellest month, breeding
• Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
• Memory and desire, stirring
• Dull roots with spring rain.

24
Read the following lines and look for
intertextual references

• KILLING AN ARAB
• Standing on the beachWith a gun in my
  handStaring at the seaStaring at the
  sandStaring down the barrelAt the Arab on the
  groundI can see his open mouth But I hear no
  sound I'm alive, I'm dead, I'm the
  strangerKilling an arabI can turn and walk
  awayOr I can fire the gunStaring at the
  skyStaring at the sunWhichever I choseIt
  amounts to the sameAbsolutely nothing

25
How beautiful you are

• You want to know why I hate you?Well I'll try
  and explain...You remember that day in
  ParisWhen we wandered through the rainAnd
  promised to each otherThat we'd always think the
  same
• The three of them were dressed in ragsAnd
  thinner than the airAnd all six eyes stared
  fixedly on youThe father's eyes said "Beautiful!
  How beautiful you are!"The boy's eyes said "How
  beautiful! She shimmers like a star!"The childs
  eyes uttered nothing but a mute and utter joyAnd
  filled my heart with shame for usAt the way we
  are

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At night

• Sunk deep in the nightI sink in the
  nightStanding alone underneath the skyI feel
  the chill of ice on my faceI watch the hours go
  byThe hours go byYou sleepSleep in a safe
  bedCurled and protectedProtected from
  sightUnder a safe roof deep in your
  houseUnaware of the changes at nightAt nightI
  hear the darkness breatheI sense the quiet
  despairListen to the silence at nightSomeone
  has to be there

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Intertextuality in popular culture

• Watch the following
• Pepsi cola commercial
• What are the features (visual, auditory, gestural
  etc.) that make you think of something else?
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vIXDSWhobbfc
• Further considerations on intertextuality
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vP6BFeVWb8vc
• The Simpson
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?v-3Hmubuvn9k
• Can you provide other examples?
• (well discuss this slide and the previous 3 on
  Friday)

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• The EU is like an orchestra in which the violins
  must play in perfect unison while maintaining a
  dialogue with the wind instruments and even
  interacting with the percussionists, who
  occasionally burst in loudly as they do in
  Beethovens Ninth Symphony. At the same time,
  they are occasionally overshadowed by the violas,
  but play a key role in creating the power and
  beauty of that piece of music, which was played
  splendidly in front of the Brandenburg Gate, in
  Berlin, when the Wall was taken down.

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What is a metaphor to you?

• The power of metaphors.
• Functional shortcuts to effective communication.
• P. Newmark
• By metaphor, I mean any figurative expression
  the transferred sense of a physical word the
  personification of an abstraction the
  application of a word or collocation to what it
  does not literally denote, i.e. to describe one
  thing in terms of another.
• All polysemous words and most English phrasal
  verbs are potentially metaphorical. Metaphors may
  be single (one-word) or extended (a
  collocation, an idiom, a sentence, a proverb, an
  allegory, a complete imaginative texts).

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• Whenever you meet a sentence that is grammatical
  but it does not appear to make sense, you have to
  test its apparently nonsensical element for a
  possible metaphorical meaning.
• YOU HAVE TO MAKE SENSE OF EVERYTHING.

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This is a translational perspective

• 5 types of metaphors
• Dead metaphors
• At the foot of the bed, in the field of law, at
  the bottom of the hill etc.
• 2) Cliché metaphors
• Expressions once effective, but now outdated.
  They should be avoided or explained.
• jewel in the crown

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• 3) Stock or standard metaphors
• Regular metaphors which sometimes are the most
  difficult to understand when they are rooted in
  one particular culture consequently the most
  difficult to express in a TL.
• Thats not cricket!
• 4) Metaphorical neologisms (usually born in
  teenager jargon or in technology or journalism).
• Womaniser (casanova, lady-killer)
• To do a line (go out / have a sexual intercourse
  with somebody)
• The fuzz (the police)
• Also, cookie, virus, firewall, icon, Silicon
  Valley, fumata nera, giungla legislativa.
• 5) Original metaphors
• This type of metaphor is "created by the SL
  writer", that is invented. Many times in
  literature..
• Shakespeare created a lot of metaphors to be in
  a pickle (in un brutto guaio) or as dead as a
  doornail (morto stecchito)

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How to translate m. effectively?

• 1) Reproducing the same image in the TT
• 2) Replacing the image in the SL with a standard
  TL image which does not clash with the TL culture
  (domestication)
• 3) Translating the metaphor by using a simile,
  retaining the image
• 4) Converting the metaphor to its sense
• 5) Reproducing the same image with the addition
  of a gloss or explanation by the translator.

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Analysis of examples

• The following are taken from press releases or
  speeches by EU commissioners. Analyse the
  translation of metaphors.
• 1)
• We stand shoulder-to-shoulder with all who suffer
  from terrorism in the world. Only we can win.
• Noi siamo con tutti coloro che hanno sofferto il
  terrorismo in ogni parte del mondo. Qui e proprio
  qui soltanto insieme potremo vincere.

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1)

• Questo primo esempio mostra due particolarità
  interessanti lespressione shoulder to
  shoulder viene del tutto eliminata in italiano
  per cui la metafora inglese viene ridotta al suo
  senso inoltre la frase breve e diretta Only we
  can win, viene resa con aggiunte che sembrano
  appesantire il testo, ma che sono probabilmente
  dovute alla necessità di riprodurre lenfasi
  posta, nella versione inglese, sul pronome
  personale we.

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• 2)
• I now know deep within me that in the months and
  years to come, I shall continue to fight for a
  strong Europe in which I believe passionately.
  The time for lukewarm pledges, half-hearted
  commitments and hedged bets is over.
• Ora so senza alcun dubbio che nei mesi e negli
  anni che verranno continuerò a lottare per dare
  forza a unidea decisa e appassionata
  dellEuropa. Sono finiti i tempi delle posizioni
  tiepide, degli impegni presi senza convinzione e
  delle ambiguità.

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2)

• Nella prima parte in grassetto si nota una
  notevole variazione lessicale e sintattica.
• Laggettivo strong riferito a Europe, viene reso
  in modo del tutto differente (dare forza) e
  lespressione più soggettiva I believe scompare
  lasciando il posto a due aggettivi (decisa e
  appassionata) che si riferiscono allEuropa
  rendendo lintera frase più impersonale. Il
  secondo esempio ci riporta a quanto detto
  riguardo al primo le figure dirette, quasi
  colloquiali, in grassetto vengono addomesticate e
  adeguate allo stile più formale dei discorsi
  italiani.

38

• 3)
• Within the context of the discussions of the
  Fisheries Committee of the European Parliament,
  the Commission has consulted with stakeholders in
  order to better understand the issues at hand and
  where possible, to take their advice on board.
• Nellambito delle discussioni in corso presso la
  commissione per la pesca del Parlamento europeo,
  la Commissione ha avviato un dialogo con
  lindustria per conoscere e tenere conto, laddove
  possibile, del suo parere in merito.

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3)

• In questo caso la frase analizzata nel testo
  inglese si compone di due parti metaforiche
  (issues at hand, metafora che probabilmente
  Newmark riterrebbe morta e to take their advice
  on board) le quali, ancora una volta, sono in
  parte ridotte al proprio senso spogliandosi quasi
  del tutto di metaforicità. Pur rispettando
  lintento del redattore di non servirsi della
  metafora marinara inglese (to take their advice
  on board) che non ha corso in italiano, egli
  avrebbe potuto utilizzare soltanto uno dei due
  verbi in grassetto, tener conto, immagine presa
  dal calcolo che, da sola, poteva rendere in modo
  più efficace la metafora inglese.

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• 4)
• I appreciate therefore your initiative to hold
  your seminar in Brussels and using this
  opportunity to profit from first hand
  information.
• Apprezzo pertanto la vostra iniziativa di tenere
  questo seminario a Bruxelles e di cogliere questa
  occasione per ricavare informazioni di primo
  piano.

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4)

• Qui la lingua italiana cerca di conservare la
  metafora, ma lautore incappa in una svista
  traduttiva.
• Mai come questa volta si sarebbe potuta lasciare
  limmagine integra senza alcuna modifica,
  traducendo first hand information con
  informazioni di prima mano e invece si è optato
  per informazioni di primo piano non rispettando
  lintenzione comunicativa perché uninformazione
  di prima mano non è detto che sia di primo piano
  e viceversa.

42

• In the absence of clear international law, the
  law of the jungle applied across the continent,
  states did as they liked.This was the backdrop
  against which the political ideas of the Age of
  Enlightenment must be seen.
• In assenza di un diritto internazionale chiaro,
  si applicava la legge della giungla da un capo
  allaltro del continente, i diversi paesi
  facevano quel che volevano. È su questo sfondo
  che vanno viste le idee politiche dellEtà dei
  Lumi.

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5)

• In questo caso ci troviamo dinanzi a due scelte
  traduttive la prima immagine figurata viene
  rispettata in pieno, quindi appartiene alla prima
  categoria individuata da Newmark la seconda, con
  il sostantivo backdrop, seppur tradotta con
  unaltra metafora, sfondo (anchessa da
  considerarsi metafora morta), non conserva
  lintenzione del testo inglese che qui usa
  backdrop in relazione a un co-testo negativo e
  probabilmente una scelta diversa, come la
  collocazione forte triste scenario, sarebbe stata
  più calzante rispetto a sfondo che è un termine
  neutro.

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• Il sostantivo backdrop, se considerato da solo o
  decontestualizzato, non ha una connotazione
  negativa in sé, ma se seguito o preceduto dalla
  preposizione against viene utilizzato molte
  volte per riferirsi ad un contesto drammatico.
  Consultando lOxford Dictionary of Collocations
  si legge, infatti, il seguente ed unico esempio
  alla voce backdrop con collocato a sinistra
  against The conference begins this week
  against a backdrop of unmitigated gloom.

45

• Inoltre, svolgendo una semplice ricerca in rete,
  attraverso il motore di ricerca Google,
  dellespressione against a / the backdrop of ecco
  i primi esempi che troviamo
• The USS Cole bombing against the backdrop of
  Israeli Black Propaganda Operations
• Against the backdrop of the Israel-Hezbollah War
• Criminal Justice advocacy against the backdrop of
  terror
• The political transition closes against a
  backdrop of impunity how will the International
  Criminal Court respond?
• Against the backdrop of the increasing threat of
  a possible attack on Iran

46

• 6)
• Only in this way would they be able to sing, if
  not in unison, at least in closer harmony. Our
  role cannot be reduced to one of painting by
  numbers simply filling in the blanks on a
  canvas drawn by others.
• What is needed is a sensible and sensitive
  partnership between the institutions of the Union
  and the Member States. We should be engaged not
  in trench warfare, but in a common enterprise to
  ensure that the worlds largest trading group
  also makes its presence felt politically.

47

• 6)
• Solo così essi possono esprimersi se non
  allunisono, almeno in modo più armonioso.
• Il nostro ruolo non può e non deve ridursi a
  riempire gli spazi vuoti di un quadro dipinto da
  altri. Quello di cui cè bisogno è un
  partenariato intelligente e sensibile tra le
  istituzioni dellUnione e gli Stati membri.
  Dobbiamo impegnarci non in una guerra di trincea,
  ma in unimpresa comune per garantire che il
  blocco commerciale più grande del mondo faccia
  sentire la sua presenza anche al livello
  politico.

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• Anche i due testi presentati si dimostrano
  diversi sotto molti aspetti. La prima immagine
  metaforica, riferita al mondo della musica, è
  resa in lingua italiana quasi allo stesso modo,
  anche se il verbo to sing viene reso con
  esprimersi.
• La seconda metafora, relativa alla pittura,
  invece, pur se nella parte finale appare fedele,
  omette unespressione idiomatica importante,
  painting by numbers (la quale esiste anche come
  by the numbers), che darebbe più senso al testo
  lidiomatismo, infatti, ha il senso di riempire
  spazi prenumerati, agire seguendo passivamente
  principi precostituiti e accettare delle regole
  imposte da altri per compiere unazione (Oxford
  Advanced Learner Dictionary che cita lesempio
  He accused the government of relying on
  paint-by-number policies

49

• e il Macmillan English Dictionary in cui si
  legge AmE, in a way that is exactly according
  to the rules) e sarebbe stato opportuno renderlo
  in italiano, se non con la stessa immagine tipica
  dellinglese americano, almeno con una più
  consueta o con la riduzione dellespressione al
  suo senso per far meglio intendere lo scopo
  comunicativo del mittente. La terza e ultima
  immagine, riferita alla guerra, rientra nella
  prima categoria, ossia rispetta e presenta
  integralmente la metafora.

50

• 7)
• The Union now has a constitution, the fruit of a
  lively Convention that I wanted to see set up
  immediately after the Nice Summit and which
  history will tell us was a model exercise in
  democracy. I do not claim that I myself or even
  the brilliant team of Commissioners I have had
  the privilege of leading, brought about these
  three gentle revolutions. As you well know, there
  is never any shortage of people to take credit
  for successes, it is only when things go wrong
  that nobody is responsible.

51

• 7)
• LUnione si è data una Costituzione dopo una
  Convenzione vibrante che io ho reclamato sin
  dalla fine del vertice di Nizza e che resterà
  nella storia come un modello di esercizio
  democratico.
• Non voglio attribuire a me stesso la paternità di
  queste tre rivoluzioni tranquille e non le
  attribuisco neanche alla brillante squadra di
  commissari che ho il privilegio di guidare. Come
  sapete, le vittorie hanno molti padri, solamente
  le sconfitte sono orfane.

52
7)

• In questo caso siamo di fronte a un evento forse
  inaspettato. Finora si è visto come gli esempi in
  italiano cerchino quasi sempre di conservare uno
  stile più impersonale rispetto a quelli in
  inglese riconducendo spesso le metafore al
  proprio senso ed eliminando il linguaggio
  figurato.
• Qui, al contrario, è il testo italiano che
  presenta delle metafore inesistenti in inglese.
  Il sintagma verbale brought about viene reso con
  il sostantivo paternità e più avanti la lunga
  conclusione inglese che non presenta immagini
  metaforiche è invece coerentemente tradotta in
  italiano conservando il simbolo della paternità
  con un calzante le vittorie hanno molti padri,
  solamente le sconfitte sono orfane.