Contrastive linguistics: an introduction

1
Contrastive linguistics an introduction

• Tadeusz Piotrowski

2
Contrastive linguistics what is it?

• Contrastive linguistics is the systematic
  comparison of two or more languages,
• with the aim of describing their similarities and
  differences,
• focusing, however, on differences,
• it is predominantly practical.
• The term contrastive linguistics
• was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.

3
Basics

• Form
• lecture
• attendance required
• Prerequisites
• knowledge of basic linguistic notions

4
Textbooks

• Fisiak J., Lipinska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T.,
  1978/1987.
• An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive
  Grammar
• Warszawa Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
• Krzeszowski T.P., 1984.
• Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków.
• PWN. Warszawa
• Willim,E. and Manczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997.
• A contrastive approach to problems with English.
• Kraków PWN.

5
CL and linguistics

• general linguistics
• theory of linguistics
• similarities in languages
• what is common to all languages in the world
• comparative linguistics
• differences between languages
• typology of languages
• aiming at classification of all languages in the
  world
• synchronic or
• diachronic

6
CL and comparative linguistics

• comparative linguistics
• contrastive linguistics (CL)
• differences (and similarities) between two
  (usually) languages

7
contrastive linguistics

• differences (usually) between two (usually)
  languages
• basis for typological description
• mainly practical applications
• translation
• foreign language teaching and learning
• bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)
• why differences?
• it is assumed that the two languages are similar
  except for the points described as different

8
CL in linguistics

• the languages being compared can be related
• Polish and English
• or can be unrelated
• like Polish and Chinese
• can be from the same historical period
• Polish and English in the 20th c.
• or can be from different historical periods
• English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th c.

9
CL in linguistics

• usually, however,
• CL is synchronic comparative linguistics
• without the historical dimension
• CL can be
• theoretical
• applied

10
theoretical CL

• gives an exhaustive account of the differences
  and similarities between two or more languages,
• provides an adequate model for their comparison.

11
applied CL

• on the basis of the theoretical framework
• provided by theoretical CA/CS,
• gives the researcher the information necessary
• to conduct actual contrastive analyses.

12
CL terms

• contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also
  called
• contrastive studies
• contrastive analysis
• interlingual linguistics

13
the rationale for studying CL

• who
• prospective teachers of a foreign language

14
CL and a FL teacher

• why
• contrastive studies are (were) used as a means of
  predicting and/or
• explaining difficulties of second language
  learners
• with a particular mother tongue (Polish)
• in learning a particular target language
  (English)
• however, CL does not explain all problems of
  foreign language students

15
CL and a FL teacher

• other hypotheses to explain the problems in
  learning/teaching a foreign language
• error analysis
• performance analysis
• interlanguage studies
• language awareness studies
• these belong to applied linguistics
• foreign language learnign/teaching methodology

16
advantages

• it is suggested that
• when FL learners are made aware of L1L2
  contrasts
• this makes it easier for them
• to learn difficult FL structures
• L1 interference accounts for some 30 of error.

17
what to compare

• early contrastive studies focused on
  microlinguistic analysis
• phonology/phonetics
• grammar (syntax, inflection)
• lexis
• today there are also
• contrastive pragmatics
• cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics
• contrastive rhetoric

18
what to compare

• microlinguistic analysis examples
• What are the consonant phonemes in languages X
  and Y?
• How do they differ in inventory, realization, and
  distribution?
• What is the tense system of languages X and Y?
• What are the verbs of saying in languages X and Y?

19
what to compare

• pragmatic analysis examples
• How is cohesion expressed in languages X and Y?
• How are the speech acts of apologizing and
  requesting expressed in languages X and
• Y?
• How are conversations opened and closed in
  languages X and Y?

20
this course

• mainly practical
• basic theoretical notions
• a review of microlinguistic contrasts

21
how to compare?

• what is the basis for comparison?
• comparison of seemingly related phenomena
• to compare them would be tantamount to putting
  ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the same
  class on the grounds that neither ought to be
  left on footpaths.
• Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London
  Longman, p 167

22
how to compare?

• object A
• object B
• either have something in common
• and we can compare them
• or do not have anything in common
• and we cannot compare them
• it is arguably difficult to find objects that do
  not have anything in common
• but
• God and ...

23
how to compare?

• that something in common
• is not A
• is not B
• is C
• C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC)

24
Tertium Comparationis

• what is common in comparison between languages
• is probably the meaning of a pair of sentences,
• in other words,
• their translation equivalence

25
translation equivalence

• there is one big problem
• CL
• studies the systems of two languages
• translation is not about systems
• it is about texts
• this is a basic distinction in linguistics
• system and text
• langue and parole
• competence and performance

26
translation equivalence

• text translation
• translation of a particular sentence depends
• on other sentences around it (context)
• on the function of the whole text
• its stylistic level
• the user of the text
• system translation
• translation of sentences without any context
• though the most probable one is used

27
translation equivalence

• Eng.
• I loved you.
• Pol.
• Kochalem
• kochalam
• kochalom
• cie
• ciebie
• was
• Panów
• Panie
• Panstwa

28
kochalom an example

• ...to chybam ja sie przesuwalo dalej i wchodzilo
  w krag nastepnego spojrzenia... w miare postepów
  mej wedrówki powiekszalom sie i rozpoznawalom
  siebie...
• Stanislaw Lem Maska

29
system and text equivalence

• that is why
• system equivalence can be called
• correspondence
• text equivalence can be called
• equivalence

30
Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis

• What is, in fact, equivalence?
• we know it is based on a Tertium Comparationis
• but what use as a TC?

31
TC requirements

• TC should be
• external to both languages
• a category based on one language has no
  counterpart
• usable
• for teachers can be used without extensive
  theoretical studies

32
TC in lexical equivalence

• concept
• (word) sign- - - - - - - -referent (object)

33
TC in lexical equivalence

• Either referents or concepts can be treated as
  TCs.
• We can reject referents as a TC because,
• there are no pure references,
• the very act of distinguishing a referent depends
  to a large degree on the relevant language
• Engl. finger Pol. palec

34
TC in lexical equivalence

• Concepts can be also rejected.
• They are not suitably external to any language
• an English word has an English meaning
• a Polish word has a Polish meaning
• They are theoretical constructs depending on a
  language.
• Other views.

35
TC

• TC should be external to the two languages
• but it should include them
• language use?
• situation of use of both languages
• translation is used in situations when both
  language are used

36
situations

• "How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?
• This is a question based on meaning.
• This question goes from the vague notion of
  meaning,
• about which there is little theoretical
  agreement,
• goes to two unknowns
• L1 and L2 items.
• We can say that we have to do with three unknown
  objects here.

37
situations

• How else can one find similarities/contrasts in
  meaning between two languages?
• "In the situation S, when an expression X is used
  by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what would be
  the most natural expression Y used by the L1
  speaker?".
• This does not depend on any theoretical
  assumptions.
• it includes two known entities (S and X), which
  are used to reach the third entity (Y).
• Competent bilinguals can easily answer such
  questions.

38
Situations

• Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2,
• and linguistic expressions are included in the
  situations, not vice versa.
• Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from
  wider contexts,
• ultimately from the context of culture.

39
Situations-applicability

• Lyons (1977). Semantics. CUP.
• a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole
  utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly
  applied) in a certain context, situational or
  linguistic ...
• it is applicable to individuals or properties of
  individuals.
• We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for
  any relation that can be established between
  elements or units of language ... and entities
  in, or aspects of, the world in which the
  language operates.

40
Equivalence other types

• Tomasz Krzeszowski
• statistical equivalence
• system equivalence
• semanto-syntactic equivalence
• rule equivalence
• pragmatic equivalence