A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

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A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Sixteen Schools, Achievement, and Work
John W. Santrock
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Schools

• Constructivist and direct instruction approaches
• Constructivist approach
• Emphasizes childs active construction of
  knowledge and understanding reflection and
  critical thinking
• Teacher provides support for students exploring
• their world and developing knowledge
• Today opportunities and collaboration stressed
• Criticisms not enough discipline, too
  relativistic and vague

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Schools

• Constructivist and direct instruction approaches
• Direct instruction approach
• Structured, teacher-centered/controlled
• Criticisms creates passive learners, few
  critical thinking challenges
• Many recommend effective teachers use direct and
  constructivist instruction together

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Schools

• Accountability
• State-mandated tests have taken on a more
  powerful role No Child Left Behind
• Critics argue that they lead to
• Single score being used as sole predictor
• Teaching to test use of memorization
• Tests dont measure important skills like
  creativity and social skills

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Schools

• Schools and developmental status
• Early childhood education
• The norm in many states, private and publicly
  funded
• Many ways young children are educated
• The child-centered kindergarten
• Emphasizes the whole child
• Physical, cognitive, socioemotional development
• Needs, interests, and learning style
• Emphasizes learning process

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Schools

• Schools and developmental status
• Montessori approach
• Originally developed for MR children, then for
  poor
• Teacher is facilitator
• Children encouraged to be early decision makers
• Fosters independence and cognitive development
  skills
• De-emphasizes verbal interactions
• Criticisms vary

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Schools

• Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate
  Education
• Developmentally appropriate practice
• focuses on age/individual (uniqueness)
  appropriateness
• Recently more focus on sociocultural factors
• Developmentally inappropriate practice
• direct instruction, extensive use of
  drill/practice, relies on paper-and-pencil
  activities given to large groups
• Children show slower development

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Schools

• Education for disadvantaged children
• 1965 Project Head Start
• U.S. programs vary for low-income children
• Proven positive and quality experiences
• Not all U.S. programs created equal in quality
• Most successful well-designed and
  well-implemented
• Controversies in early childhood education
• Include both academic and constructivist
  approaches

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Schools

• Elementary education
• Change from home-child to school-child
• New roles and obligations
• Too often, early schooling has more negative
  feedback lowers childs self-esteem
• Teachers often pressured to cover curriculum
• Tight scheduling may harm children

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Schools

• Educating adolescents
• Transition to Middle or Junior High School
• Independent from parent monitoring more choices
• Physical and bodily image changes, cognitive
  changes
• Impersonal structure, multiple teachers,
  stressful times
• Top dog phenomenon
• Benefits
• More opportunities, friends, challenges, feel
  grown up
• More subject choices, intellectual work challenges

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Schools

• Effective schools for young adolescents
• Fears junior highs being watered-down high
  schools, mimicked curriculum, schedules
• There are biological, psychological differences
• Carnegie report
• U.S. middle schools massive, impersonal, and
  lacking
• Recommended complete overhaul and changes more
  flexible curriculum, more fitness-health programs

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Schools

• Effective schools for young adolescents
• High School
• Concerns about education and students
• Needs pathway to student identity achievement
• Graduate with inadequate skills
• Enter college needing remediation classes
• Student drop out rates decreasing today
• Ethnic and racial differences
• Gender differences

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Schools

• Effective schools for young adolescents
• Effective programs that discourage high school
  dropping out include
• Bill and Melinda Gates foundation funding
• I Have A Dream program
• Projects adopt entire public grade level or
  cohorts in housing projects gives college
  tuition to high school grads
• Reading, tutoring, counseling, mentoring programs

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Schools

• College and Adult Education
• Transition to College
• Replays the top-dog phenomenon
• Many of same benefits found in high school
• Movement to a larger, more impersonal school
• Interact with peers of more diverse backgrounds
• Increased focus on achievement and assessment
• More opportunities to explore lifestyles and
  values
• Many experience more stress and depression

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Schools

• College and Adult Education
• Adult education includes
• Literacy training, community development
• University credit programs, on-the-job training
• Continuing professional education
• Women the majority of adult learners
• Occurs in many forms, offered by many sources
• Individual reasons for attending adult ed/college
  vary

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Schools

• Educating children with disabilities
• Approximately 13.5 (ages 3 to 21) in United
  States receive special education or related
  services
• Learning disability
• Difficulty learning/understanding/doing math
• Gender differences Referral bias?
• Boys are 3x more diagnosed as girls
• Diagnosis difficult guidelines vary among states

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Schools

• Educating children with disabilities
• Dyslexia
• Severe impairment in ability to read and spell
• Brain scans used difficulty integrating
  information
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity onset in
  childhood
• Definitive causes unknown in DSM-IV
• Medication is common treatment other treatments
  vary
• Stricter behavioral school rules illuminate
  these

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Schools

• Educating children with disabilities
• Autism spectrum disorders
• Autistic disorder severe onset in first three
  years
• Asperger syndrome mild impairments
  obsessiveness
• No proof of being caused by family socialization
• Affects about 1 million children today

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Schools

• Educating children with disabilities
• Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped
  Children Act renamed as IDEA in 2004
• Individualized education plan (IEP) written
  program tailored to child with disability
• Least restrictive environment (LRE) child with
  disability educated in setting similar to where
  other children educated
• Inclusion educating child with special
  education needs in regular classroom

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Schools

• Socioeconomicstatus and ethnicity
• Low-income, ethnic minority children face more
  difficulties in school
• Schools in poor areas
• Underfunded, low test scores and graduation rates
• Young inexperienced teachers, largely segregated
• Rote learning promoted
• More minorities put in remedial/special education
  classes, suspended from school
• Asians and Whites more likely put in advanced
  classes

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Schools

• SES and ethnicity
• Improving relationships among ethnically diverse
• Turn class into jigsaw classroom
• Positive personal contact with diverse other
  students
• Engage in perspective taking reduce bias
• View school and community as a team
• Comprehensive school plan, assessment strategy,
  and staff development plan
• Mental health/support team
• Parents program

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Achievement

• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic
• Activity is means to an end
• Often motivated by rewards and punishment
• Intrinsic
• Activity is an end in itself
• Self-determination and personal choices
• Personal responsibility for behavior encouraged

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Achievement

• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
• Developmental shifts
• Intrinsic motivation increases with age for most
• Decreases in early high school
• Greatest extrinsic increase and intrinsic
  decrease between sixth and seventh grade
• Blamed on impersonalization experiences,
  increased evaluations (standardized tests) and
  competition

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Achievement

• Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
• Conclusions
• Create stimulating cognitive environments
• Promote more self-responsibility for student
  learning
• Some rewards can undermine learning rewards most
  effective with high interest
• Rewards convey mastery information

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Achievement

• Mastery motivation and mindset
• Mastery Motivation
• Mastery orientation task-oriented concerned
  with learning strategies
• Helpless orientation one seems trapped by
  difficulty and attributes ones difficulty to a
  lack of ability
• Performance orientation achievement outcomes
  winning matters

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Achievement

• Mastery motivation and mindset
• Mindset
• Cognitive view of oneself
• Fixed mindset carved in stone
• Growth mindset belief in change
• Promotes optimistic or pessimistic outlook
• Shaping begins due to interactions with others
• Growth mindset shows higher achievement results
• Self-Efficacy
• Belief that one can master a situation/have good
  results

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Achievement

• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
• Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
  individuals set goals that are
• Specific
• Proximal (short-term)
• Challenging
• Can set both long and short-term goals
• Expectations linked to outcomes/efforts
• Setting highest standards that can be achieved is
  best

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Achievement

• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
• Purpose
• Accomplish something meaningful to ones self
  contribute something to the world beyond ones
  self
• Teachers, parents convey importance of goals
  should discuss where goals lead to (long-term
  picture)
• Negative influences
• Some TV/media, violent models of aggression/video
  games, unrealistic views of the world, passive
  learning, stereotyping, and other distractions

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Achievement

• Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring
• Purpose
• Technology concerns for children, emerging adults
• Computer and Internet
• Online social environments (MySpace, Facebook)
• Proper use, restrictions can be beneficial
• Internet and aging adults
• Fastest growing population of users
• Search for information, use for fast communication

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• Aging and culture
• Good life based on health, security, kinship
  network
• Collectivistic cultures (e.g. China, Japan) have
  high respect for older persons than
  individualistic cultures like United States
• Possess valuable knowledge, control key family
  resources, remain useful, aging role changes
  have greater capacity, integrated extended
  family, role continuity throughout life span

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• Socioeconomic status (SES)
• Grouping by occupational, educational, and
  economic similarities
• SES differences are proxy for material, human,
  and social capital within and beyond the family
• SES variations in neighborhoods
• Affect childrens adjustment disadvantages/advant
  ages
• Crime and isolation linked to low self-esteem,
  distress

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• SES differences
• Lower-SES parents
• More concerns with child conformity to society,
  home of strong parental authority, corporal
  punishment use and more directive than
  interactive communication
• Higher-SES parents
• Concerned with delayed gratification, discipline
  rules discussed with children, less physical
  punishment, more interactive conversation

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• Poverty
• Challenges of poverty have impact on adult lives
• 2006 17 of children under age 18 in poverty
• U.S. poverty level demarcated by family structure
  and ethnic lines minorities overrepresented
• Psychological impact
• Powerless, less financial resources, alternatives
  are restricted environmental inequities is
  damaging

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• Families and poverty
• Links between economic well-being, parental
  behavior, and social adjustment
• Feminization of poverty
• Programs that have made an positive impact
• Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP)
• New Hope Program

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• SES, poverty, and aging
• Older adults in poverty linked to increased
  physical and mental health problems
• Poverty among older minorities 2 to 3 times
  higher
• Retirement forces reduced income and spending
• Expenses, cost-of-living increases
• Social security for those over 65 years

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Achievement

• Ethnicity
• United States is more ethnically diverse than
  ever before
• Immigration
• High rates impact on ethnic population growth
• Special stressors for immigrants (language,
  changed SES, support system separation, struggle
  to adapt but preserve ethnic identity)
• Acculturation parents and children often at
  different stages of the process

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and SES
• Research unclear due to methods used
• Ethnicity and families
• Ethnic group variations in size, structure,
  composition, kinship network, levels of education
  and income
• Highest risks of poverty
• Single or uneducated parents
• All parents face childrearing challenges
• Greatest harm to children

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Achievement

• Ethnicity and culture
• Differences and diversity
• Historical, economic, and social experiences
  produce differences between minority groups
• Stereotyping of perceived deficits are harmful
• Great diversity between groups seen as one
• Latinos experiences of Cubans and Puerto Ricans
• Asians Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Thai
• Ethnicity and aging
• Face problems of racism, ageism, and sexism for
  women

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Career Developmental Changes
• Young children
• Idealistic fantasies about what to be when they
  grow up
• High school
• Serious career decisions as different options
  explored
• College
• Choose major/specialization leading to work in a
  field
• Early adulthood
• Start full-time occupation

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Career Development
• Match personality type to career
• Realistic prefer solitude, being outdoors
• Investigative interested in ideas,
  intellectualist
• Artistic creative, innovative ways for
  self-expression
• Social helping orientation, desire to be with
  people
• Enterprising dominating, good at persuasion
• Conventional detail-oriented, prefer highly
  structured situations

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Career Development
• Important aspect of choosing a career match
  career to ones values
• Monitoring the Occupational Outlook
• Labor force participation of women increasing
• Work in Adolescence
• 90 receive high school diplomas
• 75 work part-time and attend school

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Work in Adolescence
• U.S. high school students
• 75 work part-time and attend school
• Most work 16-20 hours per week
• Most work in service jobs
• Work more than in other developed countries less
  than developing countries

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Work
• Emerging adulthood
• Many variations of work patterns exist in merging
  roles of student and worker
• Co-op programs, some dropouts, most graduate
• Transition strongly influenced by level of
  education
• Special concern many attending community
  colleges but drop out or dont finish

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Work
• Adulthood
• The work landscape
• National survey 55 less productive due to
  stress 52 considered or made a career change
  because of stress in the workplace
• Unemployment
• Dual-career couples
• Males assuming more home responsibilities
• Women assuming more breadwinner roles

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Work
• Middle Adulthood
• Midlife time of evaluation, assessment, and
  reflection
• Recognizing limitations in career progress
• Deciding whether to change jobs or careers
• Rebalance family and work
• Planning for retirement

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Work
• Late Adulthood
• Percentage of older adults who work part-time
  steadily increased since 1960s
• Good health
• Strong psychological commitment to work
• Distaste for retirement
• Cognitive ability is best predictor
• Many participate in unpaid work
• Age affects many aspects of work

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Retirement
• Option to retire late twentieth-century
  phenomenon in United States
• Todays workers will spend 10 to 15 of their
  lives in retirement
• Flexibility is key factor in adjustment

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Careers, Work, and Retirement

• Retirement
• Many return to work after retirement about 7
  million in 2006
• Adjustment to retirement varies according to life
  changes and circumstances
• Retirement planning includes more than successful
  financial planning

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The End