PERCEPTION

1

• PERCEPTION
• THE PROCESS BY WHICH WE COME TO KNOW THE WORLD
  AROUND USAN INDIVIDUALS WINDOW TO THE WORLD.
• ATTITUDES
• PREDISPOSITIONS TO RESPOND CONSISTENTLY TO
  CERTAIN PEOPLE, IDEAS, OR SITUATIONS.
• WE HAVE ATTITUDES ABOUT SPECIFIC THINGS
• ATTITUDES ARE A RELFECTION OF AN INDIVIDUALS
  VALUES AND BELIEF SYSTEM
• THE WORLDS WINDOW INTO THAT INDIVIDUAL
• PERSONALITY
• REFLECTS AN INDIVIDUALS VALUES BELIEF SYSTEM
• CHARACTERISTICS THAT CAUSE CONSISTENT PATTERNS IN
  BEHAVIOR OVER TIME
• MORE ENDURING AND STABLE THAN ATTITUDES

2
PERCEPTION IN ORGANIZATIONS

• GETTING YOUR ATTENTION
• CONSTRUCTING A REALITY
• INTERPRETING MEANING
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OBJECT
• Novelty (or its yours!)
• Contrast, color, pattern
• Movement
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERSON
• Attitudes, values, personality
• Salience (sensitized importance)
• Perceptual set / disposition
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATION
• Selection filtering
• Information overload
• Contrasts

3
THE PERCEPTUAL GAP BETWEEN SUPERVISORS
WORKERSLIKERT (61)

• SUPERVISORS WORKERS
• SAY THEY GIVE SAY THEY GET
• PRIVILEGES 52 14
• MORE RESPONSIBILITY 48 10
• A PAT ON THE BACK 82 13
• SINCERE PRAISE 80 14
• TRAINING 64 9
• INTERESTING WORK 51 5

4
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS ATTRIBUTIONS

• STEREOTYPES
• Based on appearance
• HALO (HORN) EFFECTS
• One outstanding characteristic noted
• CONTRAST EFFECT
• Ordering
• RECENCY EFFECT
• Limited recall
• PROJECTION
• Similar to me Error
• SKEWING ERRORS
• Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias
• SELF-FULFILLING PROPHESY
• People respond the way you expected they would
• SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS)
• Filtering, selection, and salience

5
PERCEPTUAL MIND SET ERRORSROSENHAN (73)

• Ho THESE PEOPLE ARE INSANE(Dont let them
  out!)
• TRUTH
• SANE INSANE
• SANE ------------------------------------------
  -----------------
• OK TYPE I
• ERROR
• OBSERVED ----------------------------------------
  --------
• BEHAVIOR TYPE II OK
• ERROR
• INSANE ----------------------------------------
  -------------------
• 35/118 Youre ok
• TYPE I ERROR Rejecting HO when it is true
  (Alpha Error)
• TYPE II ERROR Acceptin HO when it is false
  (Beta Error)

6
PERCEPTUAL MIND SET CONTDROSENHAN (73)

• NOTE THE CHANGE IN BIAS, BASED ON SENSITIZATION
• Ho THESE PEOPLE MIGHT BE SANE
• (Dont keep anyone who is ok!)
• TRUTH
• SANE INSANE
• SANE ------------------------------------------
  -----------------
• OK TYPE II
• ERROR
• OBSERVED ----------------------------------------
  --------
• BEHAVIOR TYPE I OK
• ERROR
• INSANE ----------------------------------------
  -------------------
• 41 Ringers spotted by staff
• 23 by psychiatrists

7
ATTRIBUTION ERRORS

• THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
• THE CAUSE OF POOR PERFORMANCE (BY OTHERS) IS DUE
  TO PERSONAL FACTORS (LAZYDIDNT TRY VERY HARD)
• SELF-SERVING BIAS
• THE CAUSE OF POOR PERFORMANCE (BY MYSELF) IS DUE
  TO SITUATIONAL FACTORS (POOR SUPPORT), NOT
  BECAUSE OF A LACK OF EFFORT

8
ATTRIBUTION THEORYKELLEY (73)

• IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR
  EXTERNAL? WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION
  TO DECIDE
• DISTINCTIVENESS
• IS THIS PERSONS PERFORMANCE DIFFERENT ON OTHER
  TASKS AND IN OTHER SITUATIONS?
• CONSISTENCY
• OVER TIME, IS THERE A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR
  RESULTS ON THIS TASK BY THIS PERSON?
• CONSENSUS
• DO OTHERS PERFORM OR BEHAVE SIMILARLY WHEN IN A
  SIMILAR POSITION?
• YES answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions
  (Environmental causes)
• NO answers lead to INTERNAL attributions
  (Personal causes)

9
ATTRIBUTIONAL MODEL OF FAILURE

• INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (Person Responsible?)
• LACK OF EFFORT
• LACK OF ABILITY
• EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (Environment/situation
  Responsible?)
• DIFFICULT TASK
• BAD LUCK
• WHAT IS THE SUPERVISORS RESPONSE?
• NO ABILITY Training or Transfer
• NO EFFORT Reprimand or Motivational Strategy
• HARD TASK Job Redesign
• BAD LUCK Sympathy and Support

10
VALUESPREFERENCES THAT ENDURE

• BASIC CONVICTIONS ABOUT WHAT CONDUCT OR END-STATE
  IS GOOD OR RIGHT FOR YOU. (JUDGMENTAL)
• VALUES ARE RELATIVELY STABLE AND ENDURING
• WE CREATE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES, BASED ON THEIR
  IMPORTANCE TO US.
• HIGHLY INTENSE VALUES MAKE UP THE CORE OF OUR
  VALUE SUSTEM
• CONTENT
• What exactly is the mode of conduct or end-state
  being judged?
• INTENSITY
• How important is this value? Values can be
  ranked in importance to create a value hierarchy.
• VALUES GENERALLY INFLUENCE ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

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TYPES OF VALUESROKEACH

• TERMINAL VALUES END STATES OF EXISTENCE
• HAPPINESS (SATISFACTION IN LIFE) LASTING
  FRIENDSHIPS
• KNOWLEDGE WISDOM RECOGNITION FROM PEERS
• PEACE HARMONY IN THE WORLD SALVATION (ETERNAL
  LIFE)
• A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT PROSPERITY WEALTH
• SECURITY (FREEDOM FROM THREAT) SELF-RESPECT
• A WORLD OF BEAUTY FREEDOM (INDEPENDENCE)
• MATURE LOVE (INTIMACY) EQUALITY
• INSTRUMENTAL VALUES PREFERRED WAYS TO ACHIEVE
  TERMINAL VALUES
• AMBITIOUS HARD-WORKING INTELLECTUAL
• BROAD-MINDED INDEPENDENT
• CAPABLE COMPETENT LOGICAL RATIONAL
• CHEERFUL OBEDIENT
• COURAGEOUS POLITE
• FORGIVING RESPONSIBLE
• HELPFUL SELF-CONTROLLED

12
ALLPORTS SIX VALUE CATEGORIES

• THEORETICAL
• INTEREST IN THE DISCOVERY OF TRUTH THROUGH
  REASONING SYSTEMATIC THINKING
• ECONOMIC
• INTEREST IN THE ACCUMULATION AND USE OF WEALTH
• AESTHETIC
• INTEREST IN BEAUTY, FORM, AND ARTISTIC HARMONY
• SOCIAL
• INTEREST IN PEOPLE, LOVE AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
• POLITICAL
• INTEREST IN POWER AND INFLUENCING OTHER PEOPLE
• RELIGIOUS
• INTEREST IN UNITY, SPIRITUALITY, AND IN
  UNDERSTANDING THE COSMOS AS A WHOLE
• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

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DOMINANT WORK VALUES TODAYROBBINS (05)

• COHORT ENTERED WORKFORCE AGE DOMINANT VALUES
• VETERANS 1950-60 65 Hard working, conservative
• Conforming, loyal to the firm
• COMFORTABLE LIFE, SECURITY
• BOOMERS 1965-85 40 to 60 Success,
  achievement-oriented
• Ambition, dislikes authority
• Loyal to ones career
• ACCOMPLISHMENT, RECOGNITION
• XERS 1985-00 Late 20s-40s Work/life
  balance Team-oriented, dislikes
  rules Loyal to relationships
• FRIENDSHIP, HAPPINESS, PLEASURE
• NEXTERS 2000 Under 30 Confident, financial
  success
• self-reliant but team-oriented
• loyal to self and relationships MONEY,
  FREEDOM, COMFORTABLE LIFE

14
MAGLINOS VALUES FOR PEOPLE IN THE WORKPLACE

• ACHIEVEMENT
• GETTING THINGS DONE
• HELPING CONCERN FOR OTHERS
• HONESTY
• TELLING THE TRUTH AND DOING WHAT YOU FEEL IS
  RIGHT
• FAIRNESS
• BEING IMPARTIAL
• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• Are these values congruent between the leader and
  the followers?

15
WHICH VALUES ARE REALLY IMPORTANT TO YOU?

• PROFESSIONAL/CAREER
• FINANCIAL
• FAMILY
• SOCIAL/FRIENDSHIP
• COMMUNITY SERVICE
• SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS
• PHYSICAL/FITNESS
• INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
• Can your most important (intense) values be
  supported by your organization (in your career)?
  Is there a good fit between your values and
  your company/organization?

16
VALUES ACROSS CULTURESHOFSTEDE (80) n116,000

• POWER DISTANCE
• ACCEPTANCE OF HIERARCHICAL DIFFERENCES
• TOLERANCE OF AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
• INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISM
• PERSONAL ACCOUNTABILITY vs GROUP COOPERATION AND
  COLLABORATION
• TO WHAT EXTENT IS INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM
  INDEPENDENCE VALUED?
• UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
• FEELING THREATENED BY AMBIGUOUS SITUATIONS?
• DO PEOPLE WANT STRUCTURE, STABILITY, RULES
  CLEAR PERFORMANCE MEASURES?
• ACHIEVEMENT / NURTURING (MASCULINITY /
  FEMININITY)
• ASSERTIVENESS, COMPETITION, THE ACQUISITION OF
  MONEY AND MATERIAL GOODS
• OR ARE RELATIONSHIPS, SENSITIVITY AND CONCERN
  FOR OTHERS MORE IMPORTANT
• LONG-TERM / SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (COFUCIAN
  DYNAMISM)
• DO YOU LOOK TO THE FUTURE IS PERSISTENCE,
  THRIFT AND HARD WORK IMPORTANT? OR IS THE
  PAST, RESPECT FOR TRADITION, FULFILLING
  OBLIGATIONS IMPORTANT?

17
ORIGINAL HOFSTEDE FINDINGS

• POWER DISTANCE
• 16 46 54 68 81 104
• Austria USA Japan France Mexico Malaysia
• UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
• 8 46 65 82 92 112
• Singapore USA Germany Mexico Japan Greece
• INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISM
• 6 30 46 67 71 91
• Guatemala Mexico Japan Germany France USA
• MASCULINITY / FEMININITY
• 5 43 62 66 69 95
• Sweden France USA Germany Mexico Japan
• CONFUCIAN DYNAMISM
• 10 29 31 80 96
• Pakistan USA Germany Japan Hong Kong

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THE G.L.O.B.E. FINDINGSJAVIDAN HOUSE (01)

• DIMENSION LOW MODERATE HIGH
• UNCERTAINTY Russia USA Austria
• AVOIDANCE Bolivia Mexico Germany
• Hungary Israel Denmark
• POWER Denmark France Russia
• DISTANCE Netherlands England Spain
• South Africa Brazil Thailand
• INDIVIDUALISM Singapore Hong Kong Greece
• COLLECTIVISM Denmark Egypt Hungary
• Japan USA Germany
• ASSERTIVENESS Sweden Ireland Spain
• (Masculinity?) New Zealand Philippines USA
• Switzerland Egypt Greece
• HUMANE Germany Hong Kong Indonesia
• ORIENTATION France Taiwan Malaysia

19
ATTITUDESFISHBEIN (67)

• EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS WHICH REFLECT HOW ONE FEELS
  ABOUT SOMETHING (objects, people, or events)
• CONSIST OF THREE COMPONENTS
• AFFECTIVE
• FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS
• COGNITIVE
• RATIONAL BELIEFS, BASED ON KNOWLEDGE, FACTS,
  INFORMATION
• BEHAVIORAL
• EXPRESSED BEHAVIOR, OR INTENTION TO TAKE ACTION
• Attitudes are less stable than values. In
  organizations, attitudes are important because
  they affect job behavior and satisfaction.

20
COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY vs DISSONANCEFESTINGER
(57)

• EXPLAINS THE LINKAGE BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND
  BEHAVIOR
• CONSISTENCY DISSONANCE
• When the 3 elements Are in Harmony Conflict
• We feel At Peace and Content Uncomfortable
• Attitude change is Not Likely Possible
• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
  - -
• ATTITUDE CHANGE IS MOST LIKELY WHEN THE ELEMENTS
  ARE IMPORTANT TO YOU, THEY APPEAR TO CONFLICT,
  YOU HAVE SOME CONTROL OVER THEM, AND THERE ARENT
  LARGE REWARDS TO YOU FOR HOLDING THIS
  ATTITUDE/BEHAVIOR.
• YOU CAN
• Change your behavior (stop polluting the river)
• Conclude the dissonant behavior isnt so
  important after all (I have to make decisions in
  the best interest of the company, besides its
  within legal limits)
• Change your attitude (there isnt anything wrong
  with this pollution)
• Seek out more consonant elements (the benefits
  to society of our products outweigh the cost of
  this minor pollution)

21
REASONS ATTITUDES ARE EXPRESSEDKELMAN (61)

• COMPLIANCE
• TO GET REWARDS
• TO AVOID PUNISHMENT
• IDENTIFICATION
• TO MAINTAIN RELATIONSHIPS
• WITH PEOPLE WE ADMIRE
• INTERNALIZATION
• BECAUSE WE BELIEVE IT IS CORRECT
• ITS THE RIGHT THING TO DO
• This model also helps us understand why people
  behave as they do, and why people conform to
  norms

22
THE ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP

• DOES ATTITUDE ? BEHAVIOR?
• (Sometimes attitudes dont seem to predict
  behavior very well).
• DOES THE ATTITUDE REFLECT AN IMPORTANT
  (FUNDAMENTAL) VALUE?
• SPECIFIC ATTITUDES AND SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS ARE
  STRONGLY LINKED.
• Do you intend to stay/quit in the next six
  months is clearly more specific than are you
  satisfied with your work?
• FREQUENTLY REMEMBERED (AND EXPRESSED) ATTITUDES
  ARE MOST LIKELY TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR. If you talk
  about it enough, youll act on it.
• IF YOUVE HAD DIRECT PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH THE
  SITUATION, YOUR ATTITUDE WILL BE STRONGLY LINKED
  TO YOUR SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOR
• DISCREPANCIES IN THE ATTITUDE ? BEHAVIOR LINK ARE
  MOST LIKELY WHEN
• THERE ARE STRONG SOCIAL PRESSURES APPLIED
  EXTERNALLY, AND/OR
• THERE ARE LARGE REWARDS FOR GOING ALONG WITH
  THE CROWD.

23
JOB SATISFACTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

• JOB SATISFACTION IS AN ATTITUDE
• Conference Board Study 1990 58.6 satisfied, by
  2002 down to 50.4
• 35-44 yr old group 1995 61 satisfied, by
  2002 47 satisfied
• Decline may be due to attempts to restructure,
  increase productivity and contain costs
• through heavier workloads, tighter schedules,
  meager raises and cut benefits. Another factor
• may be the feeling that workers have less control
  over their work today than in the past.
• RESEARCH SHOWS
• Happy workers arent necessarily productive
  workersthe reverse may be true
• Productive workers tend to be the happiest
  workers At the individual level
• (Productivity ? Satisfaction)
• At the organizational level, the firms with the
  most satisfied workers (aggregated),
• tend to be more effective than firms with fewer
  satisfied workers. In other words,
• happy organizations are the most productive
  ones!
• (Satisfied workers ? Productive Organizations)

24
JOB SATISFACTION, ABSENTEEISM, TURNOVER, AND OCBs

• ABSENTEEISM AND JOB SATISFACTION
• A CONSISTENT, NEGATIVE CORRELATION (-.20 to
  -.40)
• Absenteeism is impacted by the liberal use of
  sick day benefits
• Even highly satisfied workers may not come to
  workto enjoy this benefit!
• TURNOVER AND JOB SATISFACTION
• A NEGATIVE CORRELATION, STRONGER THAN WITH
  ABSENTEEISM
• Turnover is related to work performance as well
  as job satisfaction.
• Poor performers may be forced to leave,
  regardless of their level of job satisfaction.
• Outstanding performers may also leave to seek
  even better job opportunities elsewhere.
• ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS
  SATISFACTION
• SATISFIED WORKERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO GO THE
  SECOND MILE BUT THIS CAN BE EXPLAINED BY
  PERCEPTIONS OF FAIRNESS
• We dont voluntarily do more than our jobs
  require if we think were not fairly treated.

25

• JOB SATISFACTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
• SATISFIED WORKERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE FRIENDLY,
  UPBEAT, AND
• RESPONSIVE TO CUSTOMER NEEDS THAN LESS-SATISFIED
  WORKERS.
• BECAUSE SATSIFIED WORKERS ARE LESS PRONE TO
  TURNOVER, CUSTOMERS
• ARE MORE LIKELY TO ENCOUNTER FAMILIAR FACES AND
  RECEIVE
• EXPERIENCED SERVICE.
• SIGNS OF EMPLOYEE DISSATISFACTION
• COMPLAINTS AND GRIEVANCES
• INSUBORDINATE TALK AND FREQUENT ARGUMENTS
• STEALING ORGANIZATIONAL PROPERTY
• SHIRKING WORK RESPONSIBILITIES (they dont do
  it)
• ACTIVELY LOOKING FOR A NEW POSITION ELSEWHERE
• CHRONICABSENTEEISM AND LATENESS
• REDUCED EFFORT
• AN INCREASE IN ERRORS/MISTAKES ON THE JOB