Chapter 11: Occupational Health

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Chapter 11 Occupational Health

• PSYC 352
• October 21

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Occupational Health

• Occupational health Broad-based concept that
  refers to the mental, emotional, and physical
  wellbeing of employee in relation to the conduct
  of their work.
• Work plays a critical role in ones identity,
  self-esteem, and psychological wellbeing.

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Positive Psychology

• Positive psychology The study of the factors
  and conditions in life that lead to pleasurable
  and satisfying outcomes for individuals.

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Environmental Influences on Mental Health (1 of
3 Warr, 1987)

• There are 9 determinants of psychological
  wellbeing
• Opportunity for control
• Opportunity to decide and act in ones chosen way
• Potential to predict the consequences of action

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Environmental Influences on Mental Health (2 of
3 Warr, 1987)

• Opportunity for skill use
• Those that prevent people from using skills they
  already possess
• Restrictions on the acquisition of new skills
• Externally generated goals or challenges
• Environmental variety

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Environmental Influences on Mental Health (3 of
3 Warr, 1987)

• Environmental clarity
• Feedback about actions
• Clarity of role requirement
• Availability of money
• Physical security
• Opportunity for interpersonal contact
• Valued social position
• Esteem
• Role membership

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The Components of Mental Health(1 of 4Warr,
1987)

• There are 5 major components of mental health
• Affective wellbeing
• Pleasure
• Arousal
• Competence
• A competent person has adequate psychological
  resources to deal with lifes pressures

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The Components of Mental Health(2 of 4Warr,
1987)

• Autonomy
• The ability to resist environmental influences
  and determine ones own opinions/actions
• Employees control of the timing and method of
  her/his work tasks (Turnbull, 1988)

I/O Across Cultures
Autonomy appears to be more important in
predicting wellbeing in Western cultures than
Eastern cultures.
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The Components of Mental Health(3 of 4Warr,
1987)

• Aspiration
• Someone with high aspiration engages with the
  environment, establishes goals, and makes efforts
  to attain them.

High motivation Alertness to new
opportunities Commitment to meet personal
challenges
Aspiration
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The Components of Mental Health(4 of 4Warr,
1987)

• Integrated functioning
• People who are integrated exhibit balance,
  harmony, and inner relatedness

• 5 components work together to make up well-being
• Affective well-being
• Competence
• Autonomy
• Aspiration
• Integrated Functioning

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Work Stress (1 of 2)

• Work stress The response to stimuli that are
  present on the job that lead to the negative
  consequences, physical or psychological, to the
  people who are exposed to them.
• Stress symptoms can cause individuals suffering,
  significantly affect absenteeism and productivity
  levels within organizations.
• Outcomes include lower levels of self-esteem, job
  satisfaction, and motivation as well as higher
  blood and cholesterol levels, depression, ulcers,
  and heart disease.

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Work Stress (2 of 2)

• 46 of American workers felt that their jobs were
  very or somewhat stressful.
• 27 state that jobs were the single greatest
  source of stress in their lives.
• In a survey of American managers, 88 reported
  elevated levels of stress.
• Stress affects almost 1/3 of the European working
  population.

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A Model of Stress (1 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Kahn and Byosieres (1992) model of stress
  conceptualizes stress in organizations in terms
  of 7 major categories.
• Organizational antecedents to stress
• Stress markers
• Organizational characteristics
• Size
• Work schedule

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A Model of Stress (2 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Stressors in organizational life
• There are 2 major types of stressors

Ill health is related to monotonous work and
sustained vigilance
Task content
Strain
Psychological - Role ambiguity - Role
conflict - Role overload
Role Properties
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A Model of Stress (3 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Perception and cognition
• Helps explain why people react differently to
  stressors that are objectively the same.
• Primary appraisal Initial determination that a
  stimulus is positive, negative, or neither in its
  implications for wellbeing.
• Secondary appraisal Judgment about what can be
  done to minimize damage or maximize gain.

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A Model of Stress (4 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Response to stress
• Physiological e.g., cardiovascular symptoms
  (blood pressure, cholesterol level)
• Psychological e.g., job dissatisfaction

• Behavioral
• Work role
• Antisocial behavior at work
• Flight from the job
• Degradation of other roles
• Self-damaging behavior

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A Model of Stress (5 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Consequences of stress
• The consequences of stress typically affect the
  performance of the individual on the job and in
  other life roles.
• Health and illness
• Organizational effectiveness
• Performance in other life roles

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A Model of Stress (6 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Properties of people as stress mediators
• 2 personality characteristics mediate effects of
  stress stressor individual difference
  strain
• Personality type
• Type A Personality construct that describes
  individuals who tend to be aggressive and
  competitive and feel under chronic time
  pressures.
• Type B Personality construct that describes
  individuals who tend not to be competitive,
  intense, or feel under chronic time pressures.
• Locus of control Personality construct relating
  to the perceived cause or locus of control for
  events in ones life being either internal or
  external.

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A Model of Stress (7 of 7 Kahn Byosiere, 1992)

• Properties of situation as stress mediators
• Situations buffer stress.
• The primary situation factor is social support
• Other situations can buffer against stress
• Predictability, understandability, controllability

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Prevention and Intervention

• Organizational Level
• Selection and placement
• Training and education programs
• Physical and environmental characteristics
• Communication
• Job redesign/restructuring
• Individual/Organizational Level
• Coworker support groups
• Role issues
• Participation and autonomy

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Prevention and Intervention

• Individual Level
• Relaxation
• Meditation
• Biofeedback
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy
• Exercise
• Time management
• Employee assistance programs

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Is Stress Always Bad (1 of 2)?

• Certain job demands that, although pressure-laden
  and stressful, are viewed as rewarding work
  experiences.
• McCauley and colleagues labeled these job demands
  challenges (e.g., job overload, time pressures,
  and high levels of responsibility)
• Managers' reports that challenging job demands or
  work circumstances produce positive feelings,
  even though they may be stressful.
• This is consistent with the theoretical
  distinction that has been made in the general
  stress literature between eustress and distress.

Source Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R.,
Roehling, M. V., Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An
empirical examination of self-reported work
stress among US managers. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85, 65-74.
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Is Stress Always Bad (2 of 2)?

• Challenge Stressors
• The number of projects and or assignments I have.
• The amount of time I spend at work.
• The volume of work that must be accomplished in
  the allotted time.
• Time pressures I experience.
• The amount of responsibility I have.
• The scope of responsibility my position entails.
• Hindrance Stressors
• The degree to which politics rather than
  performance affects organizational decisions.
• The inability to clearly understand what is
  expected of me on the job.
• The amount of red tape I need to go through to
  get my job done.
• The lack of job security I have.
• The degree to which my career seems stalled.

Source Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R.,
Roehling, M. V., Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An
empirical examination of self-reported work
stress among US managers. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85, 65-74.
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Work-Family Conflict (1 of 6)

• Changes in the workforce and in the family domain
  have renewed interest in the study of work-family
  conflict.

Family-related changes Increased role for
fathers Widespread maternal
employment Greater life expectancy
Macro level changes Methods of
production Increased technological
sophistication Widespread downsizing
Changes in the psychological experience of
work Role overload Contingent work Job
Insecurity Self-employment, working from
home Skills Financial strain
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Work-Family Conflict (2 of 6)

• 3 Targets of Research in WFC (Zedeck, 1992)
• Effects of work on family
• Effects of family on work
• Family-work interaction

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Work-Family Conflict (3 of 6)

• 3 Models of WFC
• Spillover Model similarity between what occurs
  in the work and family environments
• Spillover between work and family can be negative
  or positive (Zedeck Mosier, 1990)
• Compensation Model inverse relationship between
  work and family
• Segmentation Model work and nonwork spheres are
  distinct

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Work-Family Conflict (4 of 6)

• Gender Differences in WFC (Kossek Ozeki, 1998)
• Correlation between WFC and job satisfaction
  -.35 for women, -.29 for men
• Correlation between WFC and life satisfaction
  -.42 for women, -.32 for men
• Mental Health and WFC (Frone, 2000)
• EEs who experience WFC were 30 times more likely
  to experience mental health problems.

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Work-Family Conflict (5 of 6) Why Study WFC?
In a meta-analysis on the consequences of WF
conflict, Allen, Herst, Bruck, and Sutton (2000)
reported that WF conflict was related to
Life satisfaction (-.28) Marital satisfaction
(-.23) Family satisfaction (-.17) General
psychological health (.29) Physical symptoms
(.29) Depression (.32) Job burnout (.42) Alcohol
use (.17)
Distress (.41) Family distress (.31) Job sat
(.-24) Career satisfaction (-.04) Org commitment
(-.23) Turnover intentions (.29) Absenteeism
(-.02) Job performance (-.12)
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Work-Family Conflict (6 of 6)

• Family-Friendly Policies
• On-site child care centers
• Family and Medical Leave Act (1993)
• Employees can withdraw from the workforce to
  attend to family needs without risking the loss
  of their jobs
• Workers get up to 12 weeks unpaid leave each year
  for the birth, adoption, or foster care of a
  child care for a spouse, parent or child with
  health condition or employees own health
  condition.
• The FMLA covers private employers with 50 or more
  employees.

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Dual-Career Families (1 of 2)

• Rapoport and Rapoport (1969) first proposed the
  term dual-career family in the late 1960s, when
  more and more women were entering the workplace.
  They originally described a dual-career family as
  both husband and wife pursue careers and at
  the same time establish a family life with at
  least one child (p. 1).

Dual-Career Marriage Married couple in which both
spouses are employed but the main purpose of one
or both of the jobs is to establish and maintain
a career.
Dual-Earner Marriage Married couple in which both
spouses are employed but the main purpose of one
or both of the jobs is to produce income.
Vs.
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Dual-Career Families (2 of 2)

• Approximately 60 married couples are
  dual-earners
• Only 17 of families conform to the 50s model of
  the working dad and stay-at-home mom
• More women adjust careers for families
• Mothers with young children work 77 hours/weed in
  the home, on average
• There is a differential in division of labor
  between spouses

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Work Schedules Shift Work

• Shift work the period of time a person must
  perform her/his hob usually an 8-hour period.
• Set vs. rotating shifts
• Problems associated with shift work
• Physiological
• Social
• Shift workers are more likely to quit

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Work Schedules Flextime

• Flextime a schedule of work hours that permits
  employees flexibility in when they arrive at and
  leave work.
• 73 of US employers offer flextime
• Lateness is virtually eliminated
• Findings are positive

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Work Schedules Compressed Workweek

• Compressed work week a schedule of work hours
  that typically involves more hours per day and
  fewer days per week.

Advantages More time for recreation Chance to
work 2nd job More time with family Less company
overhead
Disadvantages Worker fatigue Fewer productive
hours More accidents
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Substance Abuse and Work (1 of 4)

• Substance Abuse the ingestion of a broad array
  of substances (such as alcohol, tobacco, or
  drugs) that are deemed to have a harmful effect
  on the individual.
• Statistics
• ADA considers former drug use a disability
• Performance impairment
• Economic issues
• Societal costs

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Substance Abuse and Work (2 of 4)

• Critics view of drug screening
• Screening violates individuals right to privacy
• Tests are frequently inaccurate
• Most support drug testing in jobs where public
  safety is crucial (e.g., nuclear power plant
  operators)
• Postal Services found that 6 months after drug
  testing had occurred, workers who had tested
  positive prior to employment were absent 41 more
  and fired 38 more than those who were not
  positive (Wessel, 1989).

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Substance Abuse and Work (3 of 4)

• Is drug screening legal?
• In 1989, the Supreme Court upheld the rulings
• The constitutionality of the government
  regulations that require railroad crews involved
  in accidents to submit to prompt urinalysis and
  blood tests.
• Urine tests for US customs service employees
  seeking drug-enforcement posts.

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Substance Abuse and Work (4 of 4)

• To avoid legal challenges, an employer should
• Inform all employees and job applicants of drug
  use policy
• Include drug policy in employment contracts
• Present the program in a medical and safety
  context
• If drug screening is used with employees, tell
  employees in advance that it will be part of
  employment

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Unemployment (1 of 3)

• Employment has intended and unintended
  consequences
• Intended Earning a living
• Unintended
• Imposed time structure
• Regular interactions with people
• Linking of goals to purposes
• Status and identity
• Enforcement of activity

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Unemployment (2 of 3)
Opportunity for control Opportunity for skill
use Externally generated goals or challenges
Environmental variety Environmental clarity
Availability of money Physical security
Opportunity for interpersonal contact Valued
social position
9 environmental factors needed for mental health
Intended and unintended consequences of
unemployment
Negative effect on well-being
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Unemployment (3 of 3)

• Relationship between unemployment and mental
  well-being

Gaining employment
Improved well-being
r .54
Losing employment
Decreased well-being
r .36
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Child Labor and Exploitation

• Child Labor economic activities carried out by a
  person less than 15 years of age.
• Not common in US
• Not rare in other countries (250 million children
  worldwide)
• Harmful because it interferes with healthy
  development (physical and psychological)