Overview of chapters 1-7

1
Overview of chapters1-7
2
Chapter 1

• The Earth is not a perfect sphere because it is
  wider around the Equator compared to the Poles.
  However it LOOKS perfect in our eyes!
• The composition of the troposphere (lower layer
  of the atmosphere), hydrosphere and crust can be
  found on p. 10 in the ESRTs.
• Latitude lines run across the globe (like from E
  to W) but are measured as North or South of the
  Equator. Longitudes run from Pole to Pole (like
  N to S) but are measured as East or West of the
  Prime Meridian.

3
Ch. 1 continued

• You can find North by looking for Polaris (the
  North Star) it can be found by lining up the
  pointer stars in the cup of the Big Dipper!
  (See p. 17 in your review book.)
• Your latitude the angle to Polaris if you are
  north of the Equator.
• Every 15 degrees of Longitude change 1 hour
  solar time difference.
• Isolines connect points of equal value on a map.
  These can be measurements of many different
  things, including temperatures, elevations, air
  pressure, pollution levels, volcanic ash
  thickness

4
Ch. 1

• A profile can be drawn for a view across a map.
  You need a scrap of paper for this! (See p. 24 in
  the review book.)
• Gradient change in value/distance between 2
  points. (See p. 1 in the ESRTs.) If isolines are
  close, the gradient is steep.
• Contour lines make a v to the UPHILL direction
  when they cross a river!

5
Ch. 2

• Minerals have well-defined physical and chemical
  characteristics (due to their internal
  arrangement of atoms) that help a person identify
  them. See p. 16 in the ESRTs.
• Rocks are made up of 1 or more minerals. The 3
  different rock categories are determined by the
  method by which they formed.
• Igneous rocks formed from the cooling and
  solidification of molten magma or lava. The
  larger the crystal, the LONGER the cooling time.
  Small crystals quick cooling. Glassy rocks
  instant cooling no crystals formed! Dark and
  dense mafic. Light and less dense felsic.
  (Except for black obsidian!) See p. 6 in the
  ESRTs!

6
Ch. 2 continued

• Sedimentary rocks form from sediments piling up
  in water. Some sed. Rocks form from the
  chemicals that are left behind when water
  evaporates. Others form from organic remains.
  See p. 7 in the ESRTs!
• Metamorphic rocks form when other types of rocks
  get changed from heat and pressure. Some of these
  rocks show foliation banding or mineral
  alignment. This happens due to REGIONAL
  metamorphism. See p. 7 in ESRTs!
• Only sedimentary rocks can have fossils.

7
Ch. 3

• Earthquakes occur when there is movement along a
  fault. The first movement occurs at the
  focus. The point on the surface directly above
  the focus is called the epicenter.
• P-waves travel faster than S- waves. P-waves can
  go through both solids AND liquids. S-waves only
  go through SOLIDS. Both waves travel faster
  through denser materials.
• P. 11 in the ESRTs has a graph to find all sorts
  of earthquake info
• The distance to the epicenter can be found if you
  know the time difference between the P and
  S-waves.
• Also, you can find the distance if you know the
  travel time for either the P or S-wave.
• If you know the distance, you can figure out the
  time difference between the P and S-waves.
• Etc.

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9
Ch 3..

• 3 circles must be drawn showing the epicenter
  distance for 3 places before you can locate the
  epicenter. (See p. 58 in your review book.)
• Seismic data helps tell us about the layers of
  the Earth that we cant see! There is a region
  of much higher density (the Moho) between the
  crust and the mantle. The outer core is a
  liquid. (See p. 10 in the ESRTs!)
• We can infer the composition, density, pressures
  and temperatures of the layers of the Earth. (P.
  10 in ESRTs)

10
Ch 3.

• Meteorites tell us that the inner and outer core
  are mostly ironand nickel!
• The crust is moving in all sorts of directions
  due to the convection currents in the mantle.
  There are divergent, convergent and transform
  boundaries! (you can see examples on p. 5 AND 10
  in the ESRTs)
• Earthquakes, mountains and volcanoes all tend to
  appear near each other near plate boundaries.
• Hot spots are regions where heat flows upward
  from the mantle and causes volcanic activity on
  the surface. (P. 5 in the ESRTs!)

11
Ch. 4

• Physical and chemical weathering break rock into
  smaller pieces. Know some examples of each
  type! (p. 81-82 in the review book)
• Chemical weathering happens faster in WARM, MOIST
  climates like Florida!
• Soils form from the weathering of rock material
  PLUS the activity and decay of biological
  material like worms, plants, fungi and insects

12
Ch 4..

• Weathered material may become small enough to be
  easily eroded. Erosion happens via 4 methods
  gravity, water, wind and glaciers (GWWG.)
• The erosional method that moved a rock will leave
  clues
• Gravity jagged, angular, unsorted, bottom of
  cliff.
• Water rounded, smooth. Makes Vshaped
  valleys.
• Wind only moves the smallest particles sand,
  silt and clay. May be pitted or frostedor have
  a strange triangular shape (a ventifact)
• Glaciers can move ANYTHING! Leaves striations
  scratches grooves. May put large boulders
  (erratics) in odd places. Makes Ushaped
  valleys.

13
Ch. 4.

• Depositional clues can let you know what did the
  moving. Examples
• Gravity bottom of the cliff mixed sizes
  (unsorted)
• Water separated by size largest settle first,
  as soon as the water slows down. They may be
  graded layered.
• Wind only small particles may form sand dunes
  that are shaped by the wind. (gentle side where
  the wind is hitting first, steep slope the
  other side of the dune)
• Glaciers unsorted, unconsolidated sediments.
  May form low hills (Drumlins) that have a steep
  end and a pointy end. The steep end points
  North which is the way the glaciers came
  from. The pointy end points South showing
  the way the glacier at moved.

14
Ch 4..

• The landscape of an area is shaped by the methods
  of erosion and deposition that are the most
  prevalent. Also, the bedrock type influences the
  shape of the landforms. See p. 2 and 3 in the
  ESRTs for examples!
• Rivers will form special patterns depending on
  the landforms.

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Ch. 5

• Scientists use the following concepts to help
  determine the order of events that happened in
  the past
• Uniformitarianism (The events in the past
  happened at the same rate and in similar ways
  that they happen today.)
• Superposition (The oldest rocks in the layers are
  at the bottom as long as there has been no
  overturning,etc.)
• Original Horizontality (The rock layers were most
  likely laid down horizontally, so if they look
  different now, they were affected by something
  that came after them!)
• Cross Cutting, Intrusions, Extrusions etc. (Rocks
  that are AFFECTED BY another process are older
  than that process. Look for signs of contact
  metamorphism (cm) to see which came first.)

16
Ch. 5

• Pages 8 and 9 in the ESRTs are invaluable!
• Pay attention to the index fossil names and
  letters across the top of pgs. 8 and 9. Find the
  exact times that these organisms lived.
• Index fossils are W i d e s p r e a d
  but lived only a short time.

17
Ch. 5

• Absolute age can be determined by looking at the
  ratio of certain radioactive elements compared to
  their decay (daughter) product. If theres a
  5050 split, then 1 half-life has passed. If
  there is a lot more decay product, then more that
  one half-life has passed. See p. 1 in the
  ESRTs for examples.

18
Ch. 6 and 7

• The structure of our atmosphere can be found on
  p. 14 in the ESRTs.
• Air pressure is affected by altitude, temperature
  and humidity. These 3 things all have an
  inverse affect on the air pressure. When
  either altitude, temperature or moisture levels
  go UP, the pressure goes DOWN.
• The charts on p. 12 in the ESRTs are VERY
  IMPORTANT! Remember to subtract the wet-bulb
  temp from the dry-bulb temp before using the
  charts.
• When there is more moisture in the air, both the
  dewpoint AND the relative humidity rise. When
  temp and dewpoint are getting closer, the chance
  of precipitation increases.

19
Ch. 6 and 7.

• Wind is caused by differences in air pressure
  which can be caused by differences in air
  temperature. Facts about the wind
• Winds always blow from high pressure to low.
• Winds are named for where they came (from).
• When isobars are close, winds blow the most!
• The Coriolis Effect makes winds in the Northern
  Hemisphere blow this way Low inward,
  counterclockwise High out, clockwise

20
Ch. 6 and 7..

• Know your weather instruments!
• Clouds form when air RISES, EXPANDS and COOLS to
  DEWPOINT. Water vapor condenses.
• You need condensation nuclei to make a cloud.
• LOW pressure leads to cloud formation (because
  air is rising!) but HIGH pressure makes the skies
  clear! (because air is sinking!)

21
Ch. 6 and 7

• Most weather systems move across the U.S. from
  southwest TO northeast.
• Most of the suns energy goes into the
  evaporation of water. This energy is RELEASED
  when water condenses (like during cloud
  formation!)
• Air Masses (different moisture and temperature
  characteristics) determine an areas weather. cP
  dry, cold mT moist, warm (see p. 13 in
  ESRTs)

22
Ch 6 and 7

• Use p. 13 in the ESRTs to see the front symbols
  (they point in the direction that the front line
  is moving!) and the synoptic weather map station
  symbol.
• DOUBLE CHECK the synoptic weather station
  symbol!! No units or labels are used. The temps
  are in Fahrenheit. The air pressure is in
  millibars, but is shortened to only the LAST 3
  DIGITS. When you convert back, you either put a
  9 or a 10 in front of these 3 numbers. Put a
  decimal between the last 2.