Unit Overview

1
Unit Overview pages 366-367

• How is music grouped in a store?
• What is the advantage to doing
• this?

2
Unit Overview pages 366-367
Change Through Time
Organizing Lifes Diversity
Classification
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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
How Classification Began

• Biologists want to better understand organisms so
  they organize them.

• One tool that they use to do this is
  classification
• Classification is the grouping of objects or
  information based on similarities.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
How Classification Began

• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and
  names organisms based on studies of their
  different characteristics.

• Biologists who study taxonomy are called
  taxonomists.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Aristotles system

• The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
  developed the first widely accepted system of
  biological classification.

• He classified all the organisms he knew into two
  groups plants and animals.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Aristotles system

• He subdivided plants into three groups, herbs,
  shrubs, and trees, depending on the size and
  structure of a plant.

• He grouped animals according to various
  characteristics, including their habitat and
  physical differences.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Aristotles system

• According to his system, birds, bats, and flying
  insects are classified together even though they
  have little in common besides the ability to fly.

• As time passed, more organisms were discovered
  and some did not fit easily into Aristotles
  groups, but many centuries passed before
  Aristotles system was replaced.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Linnaeuss system of binomial nomenclature

• In the late eighteenth century, a Swedish
  botanist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), developed
  a method of grouping organisms that is still used
  by scientists today.

• Linnaeuss system was based on physical and
  structural similarities of organisms.

• As a result, the groupings revealed the
  relationships of the organisms.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Linnaeuss system of binomial nomenclature

• Eventually, some biologists proposed that
  structural similarities reflect the evolutionary
  relationships of species.

• This way of organizing organisms is the basis of
  modern classification systems.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Linnaeuss system of binomial nomenclature

• Binomial nomenclature is a modern classification
  system using a two-word naming system that
  Linnaeus developed to identify species.

• In this system, the first word identifies the
  genus of the organism.

• A genus is a group of similar species.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Linnaeuss system of binomial nomenclature

• A specific epithet is the second word, which
  sometimes describes a characteristic of the
  organism

• Thus, the scientific name for each species,
  referred to as the species name, is a combination
  of the genus name and specific epithet.

Homo sapiens
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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Scientific and common names

• Scientific names should be italicized in print
  and underlined when handwritten.

• The first letter of the genus name is uppercase,
  but the first letter of the specific epithet is
  lowercase.

Passer domesticus
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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Scientific and common names

• Taxonomists are required to use Latin
  because
• the language is no longer used in conversation
  and, therefore, does not change
• a common name can be misleading.
• it is confusing when a species has more than one
  common name.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Modern Classification

• Expanding on Linnaeuss work, todays taxonomists
  try to identify the underlying evolutionary
  relationships of organisms and use the
  information gathered as a basis for
  classification.

• Grouping organisms on the basis of their
  evolutionary relationships makes it easier to
  understand biological diversity.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Taxonomy A framework

• Taxonomists group similar organisms, both living
  and extinct. Classification provides a framework
  in which to study the relationships among living
  and extinct species.

• For example, biologists study the relationship
  between birds and dinosaurs within the framework
  of classification.

Archaeopteryx
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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Taxonomy A useful tool

• Anyone can learn to identify many organisms using
  a dichotomous key.

• A key is made up of sets of numbered statements.
  Each set deals with a single characteristic of an
  organism, such as leaf shape or arrangement.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
How Living Things Are Classified

• In any classification system, items are
  categorized, making them easier to find and
  discuss.

• Although biologists group organisms, they
  subdivide the groups on the basis of more
  specific criteria.

• A group of organisms is called a taxon (plural,
  taxa).

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Taxonomic rankings

• Organisms are ranked in taxa that range from
  having very broad characteristics to very
  specific ones.

• The broader a taxon, the more general its
  characteristics, and the more species it contains.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Taxonomic rankings

• The smallest taxon is species. Organisms that
  look alike and successfully interbreed belong to
  the same species.

• The next largest taxon is a genusa group of
  similar species that have similar features and
  are closely related.

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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Taxonomic rankings

• Compare the appearance of a lynx, Lynx rufus, a
  bobcat, Lynx canadensis, and a mountain lion,
  Panthera concolor.

Lynx
Mountain lion
Bobcat
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Section 17.1 Summary pages 443-449
Domain
Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Carnivora
Order
Family
Felidae
Lynx
Genus
Species
Lynx rufus
Lynx canadensis
Lynx
Bobcat
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Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive
Place the following groups in the appropriate
level Mammals, Man, Primates, Vertebrates,
Animals
A
B
C
D
E
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Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive
Add the following groups to the appropriate level
on the Venn Diagram Kingdom Plantae, Division
Angiospermae, All Organisms, Order Rodentia,
Tulip, Kingdom Animalia
A
B
C
D
E
F
24
Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive
Complete the Venn Diagram with the following
groups Family Vespidae (yellow jacket), Phylum
Arthropoda, Order Lepidoptera (butterflies),
Class Insecta, Order Hymenoptera (bees, wasps)
A
B
C
D
E
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Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive
Draw a Venn Diagram to represent the following
groups Kingdom Animalia Class Osteichthyes (Bony
Fish) Phylum Chordata (animals with
backbones) Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous
Fish) Family Sphyrnidae (Hammerhead Shark)
26
Section 1 Check
Question 1
How did Aristotle group organisms such as birds,
bats, and insects?
A. by their common genus
B. by their analogous structures
C. by their common species
D. by their homologous structures
27
Section 1 Check
The answer is B. The organisms were grouped
together because of their wings, which, in this
case, are analogous structures.
28
Section 1 Check
Question 2
Which taxon contains the fewest species?
A. genus
B. family
C. order
D. phylum
The answer is A, genus.
29
Section 1 Check
Question 3
For which of the following species names does
the specific epithet mean handy?
A. Homo sapiens
B. Homo erectus
C. Australopithecus anamensis
D. Homo habilis
The answer is D.
30
Section 1 Check
Question 4
What is the difference between classification
and taxonomy?
Answer
Classification is the grouping of objects or
information based on similarities. Taxonomy is
the branch of biology that classifies and names
organisms based on their different
characteristics.
31
Section 1 Check
Question 5
What are the two parts that make up binomial
nomenclature?
Answer
Binomial nomenclature comprises a genus name
followed by a specific epithet.
32
Section 2 Objectives page 450
1. Put these animals into 3 groups.2. What
characteristics did you use for your system of
classification?
33
Unit Overview pages 366-367
Change Through Time
Organizing Lifes Diversity
The Six Kingdoms
34
Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
How are evolutionary relationships determined?

• Classification systems today are based on
  evolutionary relationships.
• This means extinct animals can also be included
  in classification schemes.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
How are evolutionary relationships determined?

• Evolutionary relationships are determined on
  the basis of
• similarities in structure
• breeding behavior
• geographical distribution
• chromosomes
• biochemistry

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Structural similarities

• For example, plant taxonomists use structural
  evidence to classify dandelions and sunflowers
  in the same family, Asteraceae, because they
  have similar flower and fruit structures.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Breeding behavior

• Sometimes, breeding behavior provides important
  clues to relationships among species.

• For example, two species of frogs, Hyla
  versicolor and Hyla chrysoscelis, live in the
  same area and look similar. During the
  breeding season, however, there is an obvious
  difference in their mating behavior.

• Scientists concluded that the frogs were two
  separate species.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Geographical distribution
Probing Bills
Grasping Bills
Crushing Bills
Feeders
Cactus
Insect
Feeders
Seed
Fruit
Feeders
Parrot Bills
Feeders
Ancestral Species
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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Chromosome comparisons

• For example, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, and
  broccoli look different but have chromosomes
  that are almost identical in structure.

• Therefore, biologists propose that these plants
  are related.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Biochemistry

• Powerful evidence about relationships among
  species comes from biochemical analyses of
  organisms.

• Closely related species have similar DNA
  sequences and, therefore, similar proteins.

• In general, the more inherited nucleotide
  sequences that two species share, the more
  closely related they are.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Phylogenetic Classification Models

• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of
  a species

• A classification system that shows the
  evolutionary history of species is a
  phylogenetic classification and reveals the
  evolutionary relationships of species.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Cladistics

• Cladistics is a biological system of
  classification that is based on phylogeny.

• Scientists who use cladistics assume that as
  groups of organisms diverge and evolve from a
  common ancestral group, they retain some unique
  inherited characteristics that taxonomists call
  derived traits.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Cladistics

• A cladogram is a branching diagram used to
  identify a groups derived traits it is a model
  of phylogeny of a species

• Cladograms are hypothetical evolutionary
  trees.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Cladistics
Allosaurus
Velociraptor
Robin
Archaeopteryx
Sinornis
Theropods
Flight feathers arms as long as legs
Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs
3-toed foot wishbone
Dry scales
Light bones
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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Cladistics

• Organisms are assigned to a group on a
  cladogram by a unique characteristic they share
  in common with other members of that group.
• A derived character is a unique trait, such as
  dry skin, that is used to assign an organism to
  a group.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Another type of model

• One type of model resembles a fan.

• A fanlike model may communicate the time
  organisms became extinct or the relative number
  of species in a group.

• A fanlike diagram incorporates fossil
  information and the knowledge gained from
  anatomical, embryological, genetic, and
  cladistic studies.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Lifes Six Kingdoms
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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
The Six Kingdoms of Organisms

• The six kingdoms of organisms are
  archaebacteria, eubacteria, protists, fungi,
  plants, and animals.

• In general, differences in cellular structures
  and methods of obtaining energy are the two
  main characteristics that distinguish among the
  members of the six kingdoms.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Prokaryotes

• The prokaryotes, organisms with cells that lack
  distinct nuclei bounded by a membrane, are
  microscopic and unicellular.

• Some are heterotrophs (eat other organisms) and
  some are autotrophs (make their own food).

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Prokaryotes

• In turn, some prokaryotic autotrophs are
  chemosynthetic, whereas others are
  photosynthetic.

• There are two kingdoms of prokaryotic
  organisms Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Prokaryotes

• Archaebacteria live in extreme environments
  such as swamps, deep-ocean hydrothermal vents,
  and seawater evaporating ponds.

• Most of these environments are oxygen-free.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Prokaryotes

• All of the other prokaryotes, about 5000
  species of bacteria, are classified in Kingdom
  Eubacteria.

• Eubacteria have very strong cell walls and a
  less complex genetic makeup than found in
  archaebacteria or eukaryotes.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Prokaryotes

• They live in most habitats except the extreme
  ones inhabited by the archaebacteria.

• Although some eubacteria cause diseases, such
  as strep throat and pneumonia, most bacteria are
  harmless and many are actually helpful.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
A Paramecium
Protists A diverse group
Anal pore
Cilia

• Kingdom Protista contains diverse species that
  share some characteristics.

Oral groove

• A protist is a eukaryote that lacks complex
  organ systems and lives in moist environments.

Gullet
Contractile vacuole
Micronucleus and macronucleus
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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Protists A diverse group

• Although some protists are unicellular, others
  are multicellular.

• Some are plantlike autotrophs, some are
  animal-like heterotrophs, and others are
  funguslike heterotrophs that produce
  reproductive structures like those of fungi.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Fungi Earths decomposers

• Organisms in Kingdom Fungi are heterotrophs
  that do not move from place to place.

• A fungus is either a unicellular or
  multicellular eukaryote that absorbs nutrients
  from organic materials in the environment.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Fungi Earths decomposers

• There are more than 50,000 known species of
  fungi.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Plants Multicellular oxygen producers

• All of the organisms in Kingdom Plantae are
  eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic
  autotrophs.

• None moves from place to place.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Plants Multicellular oxygen producers

• A plants cells usually contain chloroplasts
  and have cell walls composed of cellulose.

• Plant cells are organized into tissue that, in
  turn, are organized into organs and organ
  systems.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Plants Multicellular oxygen producers

• There are more than 250,000 known species of
  plants.

• Although you may be most familiar with
  flowering plants, there are many other types of
  plants, including mosses, ferns, and evergreens.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Animals Multicellular consumers

• Animals are multicellular heterotrophs.

• Nearly all are able to move from place to
  place.

• Animal cells do not have cell walls.

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Section 17.2 Summary pages 450-459
Animals Multicellular consumers

• Their cells are organized into tissues that, in
  turn, are organized into organs and complex
  organ systems.

63
Fold two vertical sheets of paper in half from
top to bottom.
To return to the chapter summary click escape or
close this document.
64
Turn both papers horizontally and cut the papers
in half along the folds. Discard one of the
pieces.
To return to the chapter summary click escape or
close this document.
65
Fold the three remaining vertical pieces in half
from top to bottom.
To return to the chapter summary click escape or
close this document.
66
Turn the papers horizontally. Tape the short ends
of the pieces together (overlapping the edges
slightly) to make an accordian book.
Tape
To return to the chapter summary click escape or
close this document.
67
Label each fold with the name of one of the six
kingdoms. Put characteristics of each kingdom
under its heading.
To return to the chapter summary click escape or
close this document.
68
Section 2 Check
Question 1
Which of the following is NOT a way to
determine evolutionary relationships?
A. chromosome comparisons
B. biochemistry
C. specific epithets
D. geographical distribution
The answer is C.
69
Section 2 Check
Question 2
How does a cladogram differ from a pedigree?
Answer
Pedigrees show the direct ancestry of an organism
from two parents. Cladograms show a probable
evolution from an ancestral group.
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Section 2 Check
Question 3
Allosaurus
Velociraptor
Robin
Archaeopteryx
Sinornis
Theropods
Flight feathers arms as long as legs
Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs
3-toed foot wishbone
Down feathers
Light bones
Using the cladogram, which of the following
traits would be a primitive trait?
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Section 2 Check
Question 3
Allosaurus
Velociraptor
Robin
Archaeopteryx
Sinornis
Theropods
Flight feathers arms as long as legs
Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs
3-toed foot wishbone
Down feathers
Light bones
A. down feathers
B. arms as long as legs
C. light bones
D. flight feathers
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Section 2 Check
Allosaurus
Velociraptor
Robin
Archaeopteryx
Sinornis
Theropods
Flight feathers arms as long as legs
Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs
3-toed foot wishbone
Down feathers
Light bones
The answer is C. Primitive traits are traits that
evolved very early.
73
Section 2 Check
Question 4
Why do taxonomists use Latin names for
classification?
Answer
Latin is no longer used in conversation and,
therefore, does not change.
74
Section 2 Check
Question 5
What is the relationship between cladistics
and taxonomy?
Answer
Cladistics is one kind of taxonomy that is based
on phylogeny.
75
Chapter Assessment
Question 1
Domain
Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Carnivora
Order
Family
Felidae
Lynx
Genus
Species
Lynx rufus
Lynx canadensis
Lynx
Bobcat
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Chapter Assessment
Both organisms are members of the same kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, and genus but
belong to different species.
77
Chapter Assessment
Question 2
Which taxon contains the others?
A. order
B. class
C. genus
D. family
The answer is B.
78
Chapter Assessment
Question 3
Which of the following pairs of terms is NOT
related?
A. specific epithet genus
B. binomial nomenclature Linnaeus
C. biology taxonomy
D. Aristotle evolutionary relationships
The answer is D.
79
Chapter Assessment
Question 4
Domain
Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Carnivora
Order
Family
Felidae
Lynx
Genus
Species
Lynx rufus
Lynx canadensis
Lynx
Bobcat
80
Chapter Assessment
Domain
Eukarya
Bobcats are more closely associated with lynxes
as cats than as mammals.
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Carnivora
Order
Family
Felidae
Lynx
Genus
Species
Lynx rufus
Lynx canadensis
Lynx
Bobcat
81
Chapter Assessment
Question 5
What two main characteristics distinguish the
members of the six kingdoms?
Answer
The two characteristics are differences in
cellular structures and methods of obtaining
energy.
82
Chapter Assessment
Question 6
Which of the following is NOT true of both the
animal and plant kingdoms?
A. both contain organisms made up of cells
B. tissues are organized into organs
C. cells are organized into tissues
D. cells contain cell walls
The answer is D.
83
Chapter Assessment
Question 7
Which of the following describes a fungus?
A. autotrophic prokaryote
B. unicellular or multicellular heterotroph
C. unicellular autotroph
D. heterotrophic prokaryote
84
Chapter Assessment
The answer is B, unicellular or multicellular
heterotroph.
85
Chapter Assessment
Question 8
What is a dichotomous key?
Answer
A dichotomous key is a set of paired statements
that can be used to identify organisms.
86
Chapter Assessment
Question 9
How has DNA-DNA hybridization shown that
flamingoes are more closely related to storks
than they are to geese?
87
Chapter Assessment
When DNA from storks and flamingoes was allowed
to bond, DNA base pairs matched and the strands
bonded more strongly than when DNA from
flamingoes and geese was allowed to bond.
Flamingo
Stork