DO NOW

1
DO NOW

• Briefly describe the three parts of the
  Atkinson-Shiffrin processing model IN YOUR OWN
  WORDS!

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Memory Part II

• AP Psychology Ms. Desgrosellier 3.15.2010

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MEMORY TEST

• Get out a blank piece of paper.
• DO NOT write down anything while looking at the
  next list.
• You will have 30 seconds to memorize as much as
  you can.

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MEMORY TEST

• Milk, eggs, butter, fruit, cheese, mustard, soda
  pop, ice cream, bread, pizza

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MEMORY TEST

• Now write down everything you can remember.
• What effects do we see?

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Sensory Memory

• Objective SWBAT contrast two types of sensory
  memory.

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Sensory Memory

• iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of
  visual stimuli.
• A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
  more than a few tenths of a second.

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Sensory Memory

• echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of
  auditory stimuli
• If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
  still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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Working/Short-Term Memory

• Objective SWBAT describe the duration and
  working capacity of short-term memory.

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Working/Short-Term Memory

• Unless our working memory meaningfully encodes or
  rehearses information, it quickly disappears from
  our short-term store.
• Research has shown that without active
  processing, short-term memories have a limited
  life.

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Working/Short-Term Memory

• Our short-term memory holds only about 7 items at
  a time (plus or minus 2).
• Short-term recall is slightly better for random
  numbers than for letters.

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Long-Term Memory

• Objective SWBAT describe the capacity and
  duration of long-term memory.

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Long-Term Memory

• Our ability for storing long-term memories is
  essentially limitless.
• Research has shown that memories dont live in
  just one place in the brain.

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Long-Term Memory

• Also, forgetting occurs as new experiences
  interfere with our retrieval and as the physical
  memory trace decays.
• Research with hamsters showed that even stopping
  electrical activity in the brain did not erase
  memories.

15
Synaptic Changes

• Objective SWBAT discuss the synaptic changes
  that accompany memory formation and storage.

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Synaptic Changes

• Research using the Aplysia, the Californian sea
  snail, has focused on neurons because they have
  large, easily accessible nerve cells.
• When learning occurs, the snail releases more of
  the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain
  synapses.
• These synapses then become more effective at
  transmitting signals.

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Synaptic Changes
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Synaptic Changes

• Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
  efficient neural circuits.
• e.g. less prompting to release its
  neurotransmitter or increased number of
  neurotransmitter receptor sites.

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Synaptic Changes

• Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
  efficient neural circuits.
• long-term potentiation (LTP) an increase in a
  synapses firing potential after brief, rapid
  stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for
  learning and memory.

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Synaptic Changes

• This has lead pharmaceutical companies to
  research on memory-boosting drugs.

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Synaptic Changes

• After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
  current through the brain wont disrupt old
  memories.
• The current will wipe out very recent memories.

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Synaptic Changes

• After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
  current through the brain wont disrupt old
  memories.
• This also happens in organisms after being hit in
  the head, people falling asleep, or athletes who
  are knocked out.

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Synaptic Changes

• After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
  current through the brain wont disrupt old
  memories.
• The information in short-term memory did not have
  time to consolidate into long-term memory.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• Objective SWBAT discuss some ways stress
  hormones can affect memory.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• Stress hormones that are produced when organisms
  are excited or stressed make more glucose energy
  available to fuel the brain.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• The amygdala (emotion processing clusters in the
  limbic system), boost activity in the brains
  memory-forming areas.
• This can result in certain events being seared
  in the brain while other neutral events are left
  out.

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Stress Hormones and Memory
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Stress Hormones and Memory

• Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger,
  more reliable memories.
• Weaker emotions mean weaker memories.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• Emotion-triggered hormonal changes help explain
  why we can long remember exciting or shocking
  events.
• This is also helped by the fact that many people
  relive and rehearse these events.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• When stress is prolonged (e.g. in abuse or combat
  situations), neural connections can be eaten away
  and the hippocampus can actually shrink.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

• Also, when stress hormones are flowing, older
  memories may be blocked.
• e.g. blanking out when speaking in front of an
  audience.

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Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

• Objective SWBAT distinguish between implicit and
  explicit memory, and identify the main brain
  structure associated with each.

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Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

• amnesia the loss of memory.
• Studied frequently in the study of memory.
• Patients with amnesia can be classically
  conditioned, but they do all these things with no
  awareness of having learned them.

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Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

• implicit memory retention independent of
  conscious recollection.
• Also called procedural memory.
• The unconscious capacity for learning.

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Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

• explicit memory memory of facts and experiences
  that one can consciously know and declare.
• Also called declarative memory.

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The Hippocampus

• hippocampus a neural center that is located in
  the limbic system and helps process explicit
  memories for storage.

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The Hippocampus
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The Hippocampus

• Using brain scans while people are forming a
  memory, activity is seen in the hippocampus and
  certain areas of the frontal lobe.
• The hippocampus is also activated during recall
  of words (explicit memory).

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The Hippocampus

• Damage to the hippocampus messes up certain types
  of memory.
• You have two hippocampuses, just above each ear
  and about an inch and a half in.

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DO NOW (3.17.10)

• What role does the synapse play in memory?
• What role does the hippocampus play?

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The Hippocampus

• Damage to the left hippocampus cause trouble
  remembering verbal information, but no issues
  recalling visual designs and locations.
• Damage to the right hippocampus causes the
  reverse problem.

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The Hippocampus

• Subregions of the hippocampus activate for
  different tasks, like learning to associate names
  with faces, or using spatial mnemonics.
• The rear area for spatial memory gets bigger in
  London cab drivers who has been navigating the
  city streets.

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The Hippocampus

• Monkeys and people who lose their hippocampus
  lost most of their recall for things learned
  during the preceding month, but older memories
  remain intact.

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The Hippocampus

• It seems to act as a loading dock for
  registering and temporarily storing elements of a
  remembered episode, like smell, feel, sound, and
  location.
• Then older memories are shifted into long-term
  storage.

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The Hippocampus

• It is active during slow-wave sleep, as memories
  are processed and filed for later retrieval.
• The greater the hippocampuss activity during
  sleep after a training exercise, the better the
  next days memory.

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The Hippocampus

• Brain scans show that different memories activate
  different parts of the frontal and temporal
  lobes.
• e.g. recalling telephone numbers and holding them
  in working memory activates a region in the left
  frontal cortex.

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The Hippocampus

• Brain scans show that different memories activate
  different parts of the frontal and temporal
  lobes.
• e.g. recalling a party scene would more likely
  active a region of the right hemisphere.

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The Hippocampus

• This has helped prove that our memories are
  stored in more than one place.
• Amnesia patients may remember fragments of
  memories, but have lost the ability to assemble
  them into a whole.

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The Cerebellum

• The cerebellum extends out from the rear of the
  brainstem.
• It plays a key role in forming and storing the
  implicit memories created by classical
  conditioning.

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The Cerebellum
51
The Cerebellum

• Humans with a damaged cerebellum are incapable of
  developing certain conditioned reflexes, such as
  associating a tone with a puff of air.

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The Cerebellum

• The explicit-implicit memory system helps explain
  infantile amnesia.
• Our conscious minds are blank because we index so
  much of our explicit memory by words that
  non-speaking children have not learned, but also
  because the hippocampus is one of the last brain
  structures to mature.

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RETRIEVAL GETTING INFORMATION OUT

• Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
• Objective SWBAT contrast the recall,
  recognition, and relearning measures of memory.

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Recall, Recognition, and Relearning

• recall a measure of memory in which the person
  must retrieve information learned earlier.
• e.g. a fill-in-the-blank test.

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Recall, Recognition, and Relearning

• recognition a measure of memory in which the
  person need only identify items previously
  learned.
• e.g. multiple-choice test.

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Recall, Recognition, and Relearning

• relearning a memory measure that assesses the
  amount of time saved when learning material for a
  second time.

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Retrieval Cues

• Objective SWBAT explain how retrieval cues can
  help us access stored memories, and describe the
  process of priming.

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Retrieval Cues

• retrieval cues anchor points you can use to
  access the target information when you want to
  retrieve it later.
• the other bits of information that are associated
  to specific memories, like tags, hints, or
  identifying marks on the target information.

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Retrieval Cues

• E.g. your surroundings, mood, seating position,
  etc.

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Retrieval Cues

• The more retrieval cues you have, the better your
  chance of finding a route to the suspended
  memory.
• Mnemonic devices provide handy retrieval cues.

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Retrieval Cues

• Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of
  particular associations in memory.
• It is often memoryless memory memory without
  explicit remembering (it happens unconsciously).

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Context Effects

• Objective SWBAT cite some ways that context can
  affect retrieval.

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Context Effects

• Putting yourself back in the context where you
  experienced something can prime your memory for
  retrieval.
• Research has even shown that taking an exam in
  the same room where you are taught may help
  increase your memory a little.
• E.g. retracing your steps to find a lost item

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Context Effects

• Déjà vu that eerie sense that Ive experienced
  this before.
• Cues from the current situation may
  subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
  experience.

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DO NOW

• Prepare your reading notes to be checked.
• SILENTLY read the quarter sheet on your desk.
• DO NOT share it or talk about it with your
  neighbor (Ms. Desgrosellier is looking for YOUR
  unbiased opinion).

66
How fast?
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Context Effects

• Déjà vu
• If we have been in a similar situation, the
  current situation may be loaded with cues that
  unconsciously retrieve the earlier experience.
• Or a situation might seem familiar when
  moderately similar to several events.

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Moods and Memories

• Objective SWBAT describe the effects of internal
  states on retrieval.

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Moods and Memories

• Events in the past may have caused a specific
  emotion that later can prime us to recall its
  associated events.

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Moods and Memories

• state-dependent memory what we learn in one
  state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
  easily recalled when we are again in that state.
• What people learn when depressed or drunk,
  however, they dont recall well in any state.

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Moods and Memories

• state-dependent memory what we learn in one
  state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
  easily recalled when we are again in that state.
• Depression disrupts encoding and alcohol disrupts
  storage.

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Moods and Memories

• mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall
  experiences that are consistent with ones
  current good or bad mood.

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Moods and Memories

• mood-congruent memory
• Some research has shown that people who are
  currently depressed see their parents rejecting,
  punitive, and guilt promoting, while formally
  depressed people see their parents much the same
  as people who have never been depressed.

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Moods and Memories

• mood-congruent memory
• Moods also influence how we interpret others
  behavior and create mood bias.

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Moods and Memories

• Your moods effect on retrieval helps explain why
  moods persist.
• When your happy, you recall happy events and see
  the world as a happy place, which prolongs the
  good mood (and vice versa).

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FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT

• Objective SWBAT explain why we should value our
  ability to forget, and distinguish three general
  ways our memory fails us.

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FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT

• Being able to forget things allows us to clear
  out unnecessary mental clutter in our memories.

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FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT

• Memory researcher Daniel Schacter outlines seven
  ways our memories fail us
• Three sins of forgetting
• absent-mindedness inattention to details
  produces encoding failure.
• transience storage decay over time.
• blocking inaccessibility of stored information.

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FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT

• Three sins of distortion
• misattribution confusing the source of
  information.
• suggestibility the lingering effects of
  misinformation.
• bias belief-colored recollections.

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FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT

• One sin of intrusion
• persistence unwanted memories.

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FORGETTING

• Encoding Failure
• Objective SWBAT discuss the role of encoding
  failure in forgetting.

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Encoding Failure

• We cannot remember what we fail to encode because
  the information never enters long-term memory.

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Encoding Failure

• Age can affect encoding efficiency brain areas
  used for encoding are less responsive in older
  adults.
• This decline in encoding helps explain
  age-related memory decline (in recall).
• However, recognition in older adults stays about
  the same.

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Encoding Failure

• Encoding failure also comes from our selective
  attention to particular details.

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Storage Decay

• Objective SWBAT discuss the concept of storage
  decay, and describe Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.

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Storage Decay

• Forgetting curve From Ebbinghauss research, it
  indicates that much of what we learn we may
  quickly forget.
• This led to a psychological law the course of
  forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off
  with time.
• One explanation for the forgetting curve is a
  gradual fading of the physical memory trace.

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Storage Decay
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Retrieval Failure

• It is possible that memory failure occurs because
  you cannot access your properly encoded and
  stored memories.
• You may just lack the information needed to look
  it up and retrieve it.
• Retrieval cues may help retrieval.
• These problems contribute to older adults memory
  problems.

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Interference

• Objective SWBAT contrast proactive and
  retroactive interference, and explain how they
  can cause retrieval failure.

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Interference

• Learning some items may interfere with retrieving
  others, especially when the items are similar.
• Caused when old and new information compete with
  each other.

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Interference

• proactive interference the disruptive effect of
  prior learning on the recall of new information.
• If you get a new phone number, your memory of the
  old one may interfere.

92
Interference

• retroactive interference the disruptive effect
  of new learning on the recall of old information.
• Learning new classmates names may interfere with
  remembering old ones.

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Interference

• You can minimize retroactive interference by
  reducing the number of interfering events (e.g.
  going to sleep shortly after learning new
  information).
• Positive transfer when old information can
  facilitate our learning of new information.

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DO NOW

• Get out your last set of notes on memory. We will
  be wrapping up this section today.
• Note any questions you would like to ask Ms. D
  about your midterm. She will answer them today.

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Motivated Forgetting

• Objective SWBAT summarize Freuds concept of
  repression, and state whether this view is
  reflected in current memory research.

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Motivated Forgetting

• repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
  defense mechanism that banishes from
  consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
  feelings, and memories.
• Proposed by Sigmund Freud.

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Motivated Forgetting

• While many people, including therapists, believe
  in repression, more and more memory researchers
  think repression rarely, if ever occurs.
• Research has shown that emotions and associated
  stress hormones strengthen memories.
• However, does this apply to horrible events?

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MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

• Misinformation and Imagination Effects
• Objective SWBAT explain how misinformation and
  imagination can distort our memory of an event.

99
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

• misinformation effect incorporating misleading
  information into ones memory of an event.

100
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

• Research by Elizabeth Loftus
• E.g. Shown a picture of a car accident, and then
  asked how fast were the cars going when they hit
  each other? vs. smashed into each other?

101
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

• Imagining nonexistent actions and events can
  create false memories.
• Imagined events later seem more familiar,
  familiar things seem more real, and the more
  vividly people can imagine things, the more
  likely they are to inflate their imaginations
  into memories.

102
Source Amnesia

• Objective SWBAT describe source amnesias
  contribution to false memories.

103
Source Amnesia

• source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
  an event we have experienced, heard about, read
  about, or imagined.
• Also called source misattribution.
• This is a cause of many false memories.

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Source Amnesia

• source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
  an event we have experienced, heard about, read
  about, or imagined.
• Also called source misattribution.
• This is a cause of many false memories.

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Discerning True and False Memories

• Objective SWBAT list some differences and
  similarities between true and false memories.

106
Discerning True and False Memories

• True memories
• are like perceptions of the past.
• have more detail than false memories.

107
Discerning True and False Memories

• False memories
• are more restricted to the gist of the supposed
  event.
• created by suggested misinformation and
  misattributed sources may feel as real as true
  memories and can be just as persistent.

108
Discerning True and False Memories

• In eye-witness testimonies, the more confident
  and consistent a witness, the more persuasive.
• However, they are not necessarily more accurate.

109
Discerning True and False Memories

• Hypnotically refreshed memories can easily
  incorporate errors from the hypnotists leading
  questions.

110
Discerning True and False Memories

• Cognitive interview technique a new way for
  police to interview eye-witnesses.
• They first visualize the scene to active
  retrieval cues.
• Then the witness tells in detail and without
  interruption every point recalled (no matter how
  trivial).

111
Discerning True and False Memories

• Cognitive interview technique a new way for
  police to interview eye-witnesses.
• Only then does the detective ask follow-up
  questions.
• This technique increases accurate recall by some
  50.

112
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse

• Objective SWBAT give arguments supporting and
  rejecting the position that very young childrens
  reports of abuse are reliable. 
• Objective SWBAT discuss the controversy over
  reports of repressed and recovered memories of
  childhood sexual abuse.

113
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse

• With both of these topics, please refer to your
  book.
• Major takeaways There is no evidence that
  concretely says that you should always believe or
  disbelieve childrens testimony, or repressed or
  constructed memories of abuse.

114
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse

• Children can be reliable and fallible.
• Abuse does happen!
• Psychologists still debate about the reliability
  of childrens testimonies and repression.

115
Improving Memory

• Objective SWBAT explain how an understanding of
  memory can contribute to effective study
  techniques.

116
Improving Memory

• Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
• Overlearn!
• Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking
  about the material.

117
Improving Memory

• Make the material personally meaningful.
• To remember a list of unfamiliar items, use
  mnemonic devices.
• Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues.
• Recall events while they are fresh, before you
  encounter possible misinformation.

118
Improving Memory

• Minimize interference study before sleeping do
  not schedule back-to-back study sessions for
  topics likely to cause interference.
• Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and
  to help determine what you do not yet know.
• Without self-testing, you can become
  overconfident!