3AB PE STUDIES

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3AB PE STUDIES

• Exam Revision Seminar
• Manea Senior College

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Structure of the Seminar

• Compile list of problem topics / concepts
• Exercise Physiology
• Functional Anatomy
• Biomechanics
• Motor Learning and Coaching
• Sports Psychology
• Exam Tips / Hints / Must Dos

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Exercise Physiology

• Physiology means
• Scientific study of the functions and
  activities of living organisms and their parts,
  including all physical and chemical processes.

• So Exercise Physiology means
• The scientific study of the acute and chronic
  responses of the human body to exercise,
  including changes in the heart and skeletal
  muscles.

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Exercise Physiology Concepts

1. Annual Training Plans
2. Energy Demands and Nutritional Requirements
3. The Training Diet
4. Environmental Conditions and Performance
5. Performance Enhancing substances / methods

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Annual Training Plans

• Periodisation Breaking down the whole years
  training into smaller blocks or phases that will
  have a different focus

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Annual Training Plans

• Phases of Competition
• Preparation (pre-season)
• Competition (in-season)
• Transition (off-season)

• Training Cycles
• Marcocycle (whole year)
• Mesocycle (4-12 weeks)
• Microcycle (one week)

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Annual Training Plans

• Aims of the Preparation Phase
• To progressively condition the particular energy
  systems you will be using in your sport. Practice
  basic skills
• General Preparation Cardiovascular training
  using a range of methods (eg interval, fartlek
  etc) possible strength training. High volumes of
  training Medium Intensity
• Specific Preparation Closer to competition
  begin practicing more skills and strategies.
  Fitness more specific to the sport

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Annual Training Plans

• Aims of the Competition Phase
• Maintenance Means to maintain fitness levels
  rather than improve them (varied volume and
  intensity)
• Big focus on recovery and injury management
• Focus on skills and strategies

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Annual Training Plans

• Aims of the Transition Phase
• Avoid detraining (reversibility) as much as
  possible Still continue with some regular
  aerobic training
• Maintain playing weight (correct nutrition)
• Recovery from injuries (rest or surgery) and
  refresh the body

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Annual Training Plans

• Peaking Planning training so that the best
  possible performance is achieved at the
  appropriate time (ie start of the season or just
  before finals or before national meet).
• You should be injury free, well rested, fit and
  confident.

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Annual Training Plans

• Tapering a technique used to ensure peaking
  occurs
• Lasts 4 28 days leading into a major event
• High intensity, low volume, lots of recovery
• Tapering leads to
• Increased max O2 uptake
• Increased size of muscle fibres
• Increased muscle glycogen storage
• Increased strength and power

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Energy Demands / Nutritional Requirements

• Recommended Daily Energy Intake
• Carbohydrates 55 60 (higher if training)
• Fats Less than 30
• Protein 10 15

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Glycaemic Index

• A system of rating carbohydrates according to
  their effect on our blood glucose levels.
• Low GI foods produce a small but prolonged rise
  in blood glucose levels
• High GI foods can quickly raise blood glucose
  levels but not for very long

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Glycaemic Index

• Low GI Foods (55 or less)
• Grain bread
• Beans
• Milk
• Spaghetti
• Apples

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Glycaemic Index

• Medium GI Foods (55 - 70)
• Brown Rice
• Pancakes
• Pineapple

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Glycaemic Index

• High GI Foods (70 and above)
• White bread
• Jellybeans
• Dates
• Donuts
• Potatoes
• Watermelon

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Training Diet

• Pre-event
• Carbohydrate Loading Exercise Taper followed by
  high carb diet
• 3-4 hours prior High carb (low GI), low fat
  meal
• 1 hr prior High GI snack
• Ensure full hydration

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Training Diet

• During Event
• High GI snacks that are easy to digest (banana,
  lollies watermelon)
• Hydration (200mL every 15 mins)
• Liquid meals like carbo shots and sports drinks
  are ideal

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Training Diet

• Post Event
• Important to consume carbs in first 2 hours
  after.
• Consume protein for muscle repair
• Ensure full hydration (water and sports drinks)

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Fluid Intake

• AIS Recommends
• Avg daily intake 2000mL
• In the hour before event 600mL
• During activity 200mL every 15mins
• Increase all levels in hot conditions
• Include sports drinks to replace electrolytes

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Heat
• Humidity
• Cold
• Altitude

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Heat
• Can be transferred in 4 ways
• Conduction direct contact (3)
• Radiation No contact, (60)
• Convection Air or water currents (12)
• Evaporation sweat (25 up to 80 in hot areas)

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Heat
• Physiological Effects
• Dehydration (which leads to)
• Increased HR and strain on the heart
• More peripheral blood flow (away from working
  muscles)
• Heat stroke

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Heat
• Coping with heat
• Acclimatise (live and train in hot conditions)
• Extra hydration (including electrolytes)
• Ice vests, ice ingestion, mist fans
• Minimal clothing (more skin exposed)
• Avoid caffeine and alcohol

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Heat
• Humidity can raise the apparent temperature as
  the body would normally rely on evaporation
  (sweat) to cool down but the air is already
  saturated and sweat will not evaporate as well.

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Cold
• Physiological Effects
• Cold shock response causes rapid breathing rate
• Muscles cannot contract fully
• Shivering which can expend more energy and
  decrease your coordination
• Dehydration (you wont feel the need to drink as
  much when its cold)

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Cold
• Coping with cold
• Acclimatise (live and train in cold conditions)
• Appropriate clothing (wetsuits, skins, gloves)
• More body fat will increase your insulation
• Longer more vigorous warm ups
• Still important to keep hydrated

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Cold
• Wind and water can lower the core temperature
  significantly. If this happens blood is directed
  away from the skin and working muscles to retain
  heat. This will affect how well your muscles
  function.

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Altitude
• The higher you go above sea level, the less
  oxygen is available for your body.
• Your aerobic capacity is reduced by 3 every 300m
  you go above sea level.
• But the higher you go the less air resistance,
  which will benefit projectile sports and
  anaerobic events

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Altitude
• Physiological Effects
• Causes increased breathing and HR
• Decreased ability to get O2 into body
• Decreased ability of aerobic energy system
• Decreased VO2 Max (ability to use O2)

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Environmental Conditions and Performance

• Altitude
• Coping with altitude
• Acclimatisation Live and train at altitude
• Or better still -Live high train low (sleep in
  altitude chamber and train at low altitude)

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Methods of Enhancing Performance

• A technique or substance that will give an
  advantage over other athletes
• Some are considered legal and encouraged and
  others are Illegal and their use has been banned
• Make sure you know the perceived benefits and
• possible side effects of the following

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Dietary Supplements

• Sports bars
• Bicarbonate / Citrate
• Caffeine
• Calcium
• Creatine
• Sports drinks
• Carbohydrate gels

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Illegal Performance Enhancers

• Anabolic steroids
• Human growth hormone (HGH)
• Diuretics
• Stimulants
• Narcotics

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Physiological Aids (Illegal)

• Erythropoietin (EPO) causes the body to produce
  more RBCs
• Blood doping removing blood then reinfusing the
  RBCs once the body has replenished their own
  supplies.

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Functional Anatomy

• Muscle Structure

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Sarcomere structure
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Bands and Zones in the Sarcomere

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Types of Muscle Contraction

• Isometric
• No change in muscle length

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Types of Muscle Contraction

• Isotonic Concentric
• Muscle shortens under tension

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Types of Muscle Contraction

• Isotonic Eccentric
• Muscle lengthens under tension

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Types of Muscle Contraction

• Isokinetic
• Using specialised equipment so that the muscle
  being trained shortens at a constant speed
• Muscle stays under maximum tension throughout the
  entire range of motion

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Mechanical Characteristics of Muscle

• The force a muscle can generate depends on ..
• The number of muscle fibres recruited
• The muscle fibre type
• The cross-sectional area of muscle
• The muscle length (joint angle)
• The muscle shape / location
• Speed of contraction
• Type of contraction (concentric, isometric etc)
• Age and gender of the person

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Relationships Muscle Contraction

• Force-Velocity
• The faster a muscle contracts, the less force it
  can produce.
• Thats why isometric contractions can generate
  the most force

Force
Strength
Power
Speed
Velocity
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Relationships Muscle Contraction
Force

• Force Length
• Muscles can produce maximum force when they are
  at their resting length. This is usually about
  the middle of a joints range of motion

Length
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The Nervous System and Muscles

• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Consists of the brain and spinal chord
• This is where all the information is processed

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Peripheral Nervous System

• Sensory Division
• Carries signals from receptors (eg in the skin)
  to the CNS
• Provides the CNS with info

• Motor Division
• Carries signals from the CNS to the bodies
  effectors (eg muscle cell or sweat gland)
• Does what the CNS asks of them

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Motor Neurons and Motor Units

• Motor Neuron
• Found in the CNS
• Supplys stimulus for skeletal muscles
• Each motor neuron connects to a muscle fibre (or
  100s of muscle fibres)

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Motor Neurons and Motor Units

• Motor Unit
• This is the motor neuron plus all the muscle
  fibres it attaches to
• Some are small (like in the face) with only 5
  muscle fibres involved
• Some are huge (eg in your quads) with up to 1000
  muscle fibres involved

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The All or Nothing Law

• A motor unit cannot vary the force of its
  contraction. It can only contract or relax
• Once the electrical impulse reaches the
  threshold or limit, the whole motor unit will
  contract.
• Think of squeezing a trigger on a gun. It will
  only fire when the trigger is squeezed to a
  certain level

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Muscle Contraction Force

• How do we get stronger muscle contractions ?
• To lift a feather, the CNS will only trigger a
  small number of motor units (enough to lift the
  feather)
• To lift a heavy weight the CNS will trigger more
  motor units to increase the force of the
  contraction

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Patterns of Motor Unit Firing

• Synchronous
• All motor units fire at the same time
• Generates max force
• Muscle fatigues quick
• Eg Shot put / bench press

• Asynchronous
• Motor units are rotated between (while some relax
  other work)
• Generates less force
• Muscles take longer to fatigue

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Muscle Fibre Types
Slow Twitch Type 1 Fast Twitch Type 2a Fast Twitch Type 2b
Colour Red White White
Contraction Speed Slow Med High
Contraction Force Low Med High
Fatigue Resistance High Med Low
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Muscle Fibre Recruitment

• Depends on the type of activity
• Type 1 fibres are always first called upon
• As intensity (workload) increases more Type 2a
  fibres are recruited.
• If intensity continues to increase Type 2b fibres
  are recruited

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Momentum
• The amount of motion a body has
• It is dependant on the mass and velocity of
• the body

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Conservation of Momentum
• A moving objects momentum will be
• conserved (stay the same) unless another
• force acts on that object
• In a collision between 2 objects, the momentum
  can
• be transferred from one object to another

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Impulse
• The change in momentum of an object
• It is dependant on force and time
• In sports where you want to increase acceleration
  or force, you need to increase the time

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Impulse
• In sports where you want to increase
• acceleration or force, you need to increase
• the time over which that force is applied
• Eg looser tennis racquet strings so the ball is
  in contact with them longer
• Eg Drag push in hockey ball stays in contact
  with the stick for longer so more force is
  applied

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Impulse
• Its also beneficial to increase the time taken
  for the body to stop momentum.
• Eg landing with bent knees will lower the peak
  force sent through the body and reduce risk of
  injury
• Eg Bringing hands backwards as you catch a
  cricket ball will increase the time taken for the
  ball to come to a complete stop, reducing the
  force going through your hands

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Biomechanical Concepts

• Coefficient of Restitution
• The bounciness of an object or an objects
  ability to retain energy after a collision
• Measured by a number between 0 and 1
• COR of 1 all energy retained after a collision
  (ball bounces back to the height it was dropped
  from
• COR of 0 No energy retained after a collision
  (ball does not bouce at all)

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Coefficient of Restitution
Bouncy ball or Golf ball 0.9
Tennis ball 0.7
Squash ball 0.4
Hackey sac or Bean bag 0.1
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Coefficient of Restitution

• 3 Factors that influence COR
• Materials of the colliding bodies
• Velocity of the colliding bodies
• Temperature of the colliding bodies

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Moment of Inertia

• The force required to change angular motion
• Think of it as how easy or hard it is to get an
• object spinning or stop it spinning
• MOI depends on the mass of the object and
• how close that mass is to the axis of rotation

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Moment of Inertia

• As angular velocity increases,
• MOI decreases and vice versa
• The diver can change their body
• position to move their mass closer
• to the axis of rotation (tuck) or
• further away (layout). Their body
• position then changes their rate
• Spin
• Angular momentum does not change
• In the air

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Levers

• Bar-like, rigid objects that turn about a fixed
  point
• All levers have
• An axis or pivot point (fulcrum)
• A resistance (the load to be moved)
• A force (the action that causes the load to move)

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Levers

• 1st Class
• fulcrum between resistance and force
• This lever will increase the speed that the load
  can move

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Levers

• 2nd Class
• Fulcrum at the end, resistance in the middle
• This lever can increase the strength we can apply

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Levers

• 3rd Class
• Fulcrum at the end, force in the middle
• This lever increases the speed at which the load
  can move
• Most common lever in the human body

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Levers

• Long levers help
• Athletes trying to impart high velocity on a
  projectile (throwers, bowlers, strikers)
• Swimmers and rowers (longer pull stroke)
• Short levers help
• Athletes trying to develop max force (over a
  short distance) eg weightlifters, shot putters

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Biomechanical Analysis

• Quantitative Analysis
• Evaluating a performance or aspects of a
  performance using numbers
• eg Using batting average to rank your batters
• Qualitative Analysis
• Evaluating a performance using the senses
• eg Viewing video footage of a cricket shot to
  identify flaws in the technique

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4 Stages of Qualitative Analysis
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4 Stages of Qualitative Analysis

• Preparation
• Know the activity and its critical features
• What are we wanting to achieve
• What standard is the athlete aiming for

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4 Stages of Qualitative Analysis

• 2. Observation
• Know the situation
• Decide on best viewing point / angle
• Use the best method of observation (ie view the
  whole skill or part of the skill)
• Observe in competition or practice ?
• Compare footage to correct model

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4 Stages of Qualitative Analysis

• 3. Evaluation
• Evaluate what you have just observed
• Identify strengths and weaknesses
• Prioritise the areas that need most attention
• Identify what is causing the errors

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4 Stages of Qualitative Analysis

• 4. Intervention
• Begin changing the technique
• Show athlete the footage of their errors
• Describe and demo correct technique
• Implement new technique into training
• Repeat the process but you can skip step 1

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Biomechanical Principles of Movement

• Already discussed
• Force time
• Inertia

• Discussed next
• Range of Motion
• Balance
• Coordination continuum
• Segmental interaction
• Optimal projection
• Spin

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Range of Motion

• Angular or linear movements made by the body or
  segments of the body, to execute a movement
• Increasing the ROM will increase the speed and
  force eg stepping forward when throwing
• Decreasing the ROM will reduce the force produced
  but increase the accuracy eg like a golf putt.

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Balance

• Increasing balance and stability provides a more
  stable base which allows for greater force
  production. Increased balance will also help to
  increase accuracy
• You can increase your balance / stability by
• Increasing your mass
• Lowering your centre of gravity (COG)
• Increasing your base of support

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Coordination Continuum

• The sequence and timing of body actions to
  create a movement

Simultaneous Movement
Sequential Movement
Generate high speed but low force
Generate high force and strength
80
Segmental Interaction

• Energy is transferred across body segments and
  joints to achieve maximum velocity of the last
  body segment
• Movement starts at the biggest, strongest and
  slowest segments and momentum is generated and
  passed on to the smaller faster segments
• Timing and having a stable base are very important

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Optimal Projection

• When releasing a projectile, there is an optimal
  angle of projection to achieve your goal (eg max
  distance or height)
• The flight path of a projectile depends on
• Velocity at release
• Angle of release
• Height of release

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Biomechanical Principles of Movement

• Make sure you can explain how these principles
  apply to movements like
• Running (sprinting, distance running)
• Jumping (eg long jump, high jump)
• Striking (eg racquet sports, bat sports)
• Throwing (eg discus, shot put, overarm)

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Fluid Mechanics

• Bernouillis Principle
• the faster a moving fluid moves, the lower the
  pressure within the fluid
• FAST FLOW PRESSURE LOW

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Bernouillis Principle
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The Magnus Effect

• The force that affects a spinning ball in flight
  causing its trajectory to change

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Drag Forces

• The force produced by the motion of an object in
  a fluid (either air or water)
• How much drag force is created depends on
• Size of the object
• Velocity of the object
• Shape of the object
• The type of fluid the object is moving through

87
Drag Forces in Air

• Air Resistance varies depending on
• Speed faster you go, the more resistance
• Frontal area bigger frontal area more
  resistance
• Shape, position, smoothness rough, square
  objects more resistance
• Mass lighter objects more resistance

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Drag Forces in Air

• Performance can be increased when we reduce the
  effects of drag
• Aerodynamic equipment
• Aerodynamic positions
• Slipstreaming

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Drag Forces in Water

• Surface Drag The force caused by water moving
  backwards over the body
• How to minimise surface drag
• Shaving all body hair
• Covering body in lotion
• Specialised body suits (some now banned)

90
Drag Forces in Water

• Form Drag turbulent pockets and currents
  created when the body separates water
• How to minimise form drag
• Correct, streamlined technique
• Some sports such as kayaking aim to increase form
  drag by using their paddles to make sharp turns

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Drag Forces in Water

• Wave Drag turbulence created when the top of
  the water interacts with the air creating waves
• How to minimise wave drag
• Streamlined technique

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Motor Learning and Coaching

• Transfer of Learning
• The influence that one skill has on the
  acquisition or performance of another
• Categories
• Skill to skill
• Theory to practice
• Training to competition

93
Transfer of Learning

• Types of transfer
• Positive
• Negative
• Zero
• Direct
• Proactive
• Retroactive
• Bilateral

94
Training Types of Practice

• Massed Practice
• Continuous sessions
• Limited / no breaks
• Practice same skill
• Good For
• Motivated / experienced athletes
• Simple / discrete skills

• Distributed Practice
• Varied practice with rest or breaks
• Regularly changing skills or drills
• Good for
• Complex or new skills
• Dangerous or demanding skills
• Less motivated athletes

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Teaching Skills

• Teaching simple skills
• Imitation Method
• Athlete copies a demonstration
• Whole Method
• Athlete is taught the whole skill at once

96
Teaching Skills

• Teaching complex skills
• Shaping
• Teaching a simplified version of the skill, then
  gradually adding in the more difficult components
• Chaining
• Breaking the skill down into smaller parts,
  teaching the smaller parts separately then
  linking them together

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Analysing Movement Skills

• Cycle for improvement

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Methods of Reflection

• A coach or athlete could reflect on their
  performance by using
• Training log or diary
• Self-reflection diary
• Observation schedule
• Mentor feedback

99
Recognition of things to improve

• Coaches can identify their weaknesses using
• Video Analysis gives the ability to view skills
  over and over, in slow motion and from numerous
  angles
• Video Software (Sportscode or Swinger) gives
  the ability to measure and analyse video footage

100
Planning for Improvement

• Coaches can measure and track atheletes
  performance using
• Telemetry GPS and HR monitors during games and
  training
• SWOT analysis Athletes write down their
  strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
  leading into important games

101
Leadership Styles

• Autocratic (Authoritarian)
• Leader has complete control and makes all
  decisions. Leader is very much concerned with
  achievement (winning)
• Effective when
• Players need instruction / direction
• High stakes or high level

102
Leadership Styles

• Democratic
• Leader consults with team members and welcomes
  their input
• Effective when
• Strong bond between team and leader
• Players are skilled and experienced
• Players want to share responsibility

103
Leadership Styles

• Laissez-Faire (casual)
• The leader has minimal input and takes little
  responsibility for the team
• Effective when
• Players are highly motivated
• Team is social and not competitive
• Players are experienced

104
Mental Skills

• Non physical skills that athletes work on to
  improve their performance
• Self confidence
• Arousal regulation
• Concentration
• Stress and anxiety management
• Motivation

105
Mental Strategies

• Strategies put in place by athletes to alter
  their mental skills.
• Self-talk
• Relaxation techniques
• Performance routines
• Goal setting
• Imagery

106
Group Cohesion

• The degree to which a team has bonded or
  cooperates
• Task Cohesion How commited the group is to
  achieving the task goals
• Social Cohesion How strong the friendships and
  relationships are between members

107
Carrons Model of Group Cohesion
108
Social Loafing

• Relaxing or lessening of effort by a team
  member
• How to avoid social loafing
• Acknowledge individual efforts
• Team develops code of conduct
• Clearly define all player roles
• Provide regular individual feedback

109
How to develop group cohesion

• Develop shared vision and goals
• Make all members feel valued
• Create social opportunities
• Team building activities
• Resolve conflicts quickly and fairly