BIODIVERSITY

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BIODIVERSITYThe first animal species to go are
the big, slow, the tasty, and those with valuable
parts such as tusks and skins. Edward O.
Wilson- biodiversity expert

• Chapter 14 APES

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What is Biodiversity?

• Variety complexity of life
• Genetic diversity- measure of the variety of
  different versions of genes within a species
• Species diversity- number of different kinds of
  organisms within communities or ecosystems.
• Species diversity takes into account abundance of
  species also evenness
• Species richness- of species in a biological
  community or a sample.

Genetic Diversity of Cattle
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Calculating Biodiversity

• Ecological diversity- assesses the richness and
  complexity of community (including of niches,
  trophic levels, productivity, nutrient recycling
  etc.)
• Will calculate this by
• Simpsons Index and
• Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (related to
  uncertainty)

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High Species Diversity- complex community

• High diversity complex community, increased
  species interactions, more energy transfer, high
  productivity
• High diversity high uncertainty
• Low diversity?

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Biodiversity of the Parking Lot Discussion
questions

• 1.How are diversity (H), species richness (N),
  and abundance (frequency f) related?
• 2. How are diversity (H) and evenness (J)
  related?
• 3.What is the relationship between Island size,
  richness, diversity, and population size?
• 4. How does this activity demonstrate the theory
  of Island Biogeography?

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Productivity
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How many species are there?

• 1.8 million identified
• Actual of species is probably higher. More
  like 3-50 million that have yet to be discovered.
• 70 of all known species are invertebrates
• 10-15 of all species live in N. America
• Greatest biodiversity centers are Rainforest
  Coral Reefs

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How do we benefit from biodiversity?

• Food
• Many countries have wide variety of food items
  that are not available/cultivated world wide
• Could increase genetic pool of domestic crop
  genes.
• Indonesia uses 250 edible fruits, only 43 have
  been cultivated widely.
• Overgrazing, forest clearing for unsustainable
  agriculture are destroying potential natural food
  sources before they can be identified.

Mangosteen from Indonesia supposedly the best
tasting fruit but only found in tropical
regions- not harvested and shipped overseas for
profit. Is that good or bad?
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How do we benefit from biodiversity?

• 2. Drugs Medicine
• Pharmaceuticals made from plants, animals,
  microbes from developing world have value of 30
  billion/year.
• Biopiracy- materials/ideas from developing
  countries are used but people not compensated.
• EX Vinblastine vincristine from Madagascar
  periwinkle are strong anticancer drugs. The total
  value of the crop is 15 million/year, Madagascar
  gets little profit.
• Some companies (ex Merck) pay scientists to find
  new organisms. INBIO pays locals to help find
  test new species.
• Selling data specimens will finance scientific
  work and nature protection.

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How do we benefit from biodiversity?

• Ecological Benefits
• Nature maintains ecological cycles (nitrogen,
  water, etc)
• Genetic library
• Some species recover quicker from disturbance if
  area was biodiverse to begin with.
• Removing one species greatly affects all others
  which could affect us
• EX removal of wolves in Yellowstone led to
  increased herbivore populations that competed
  with livestock and changed ecosystem.
• EX Insects pests are kept in balance by other
  insects and animals. If they are gone- harmful
  insect populations will rise.

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vBXXczLhzlHA
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How do we benefit from biodiversity?

• Aesthetic Cultural Benefits
• Hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, wildlife
  watching, skiing are based on nature.
• Contact with nature can be psychologically
  emotionally restorative
• 104 million spent on wildlife recreation
• Ecotourism is good form of sustainable economic
  development
• Existence value- just knowing its there is
  reason to protect
• Religious groups say to protect Gods creation.

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What Threatens Biodiversity?

• Natural Causes of Extinction
• Mass extinctions due to climate change from
  asteroid impacts
• Ex Cretaceous- dinosaurs 50 of existing life
  died Permian- 2/3 of all marine life died

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What Threatens Biodiversity?

• Human-Caused
• Some say 1/3-2/3 of all current species will be
  extinct by middle of this century. Maybe
  considered 6th extinction but caused by humans
  not asteroids!

Is this what we have to look forward to?
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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• A. Habitat Destruction
• Biggest reason for current extinctions
• Habitat fragmentation prevents individuals from
  finding each other during breeding seasons
• Small pop. Not enough breeding adults to keep
  genetic diversity
• Eliminate prominent and obscure populations

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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• B. Hunting Fishing
• Overharvesting depletes population causes
  extinctions
• EX passenger pigeon most abundant bird in world
  but hunted to extinction in 1900.
• EX Bison killed by U.S. Army to deprive native
  people of food, clothing, shelter so they would
  have to live on reservations.
• EX Whales for food, blubber, etc. As fishing
  technology improved, whale population declined.
  International Whaling Commission has had positive
  effects on whale population- prohibiting whaling.
• Now that population has increased, should
  cultural whaling be allowed?
• 13 out of 17 principal fishing zones are now
  commercially exhausted or in steep decline. Cod
  industry crashed in 1980s 90s putting 20,000
  people out of work.
• See What can you do? pg 291 for other species
  of endangered seafood

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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• C. Commercial Products Live Specimens
• Smuggling of live animals or animal products is
  big business.
• Developing countries (Asia, Africa, Latin
  America) are biggest exporters
• Developed countries (Europe, N. America, and
  China) are biggest importers
• Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong buy ¾ of all cat and
  snake skins
• Europeans buy ¾ of live birds
• US imports 99 of live cacti and 75 of orchids
• 50 animals are caught or killed for every one
  that makes it to market.

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• Ex Rhinos
• Between 1960 and 1980 population decreased from
  100,000 to 3,000.
• 28,000 per kg of horn
• Use horn for medicine- made from keratin like
  hair. Testing has not shown any medicinal value.
• Make dagger handles- older, larger dagger handles
  are more prestigious (1,000)

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• Ex Birds
• Large birds are too obvious
• Most birds smuggled in as eggs
• Use vests under clothing to incubate eggs
• Mortality rate very high
• Hyacinth macaw goes for 10,000

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• Ex Elephants
• Shows complexity of wildlife trade
• Ivory tusks 100 per kg
• 1.3 million elephants in 1980 10 years later
  only ½ that number.
• 1989 ivory trade banned.
• Pop. have increased greatly
• Herds must be thinned to keep them from
  destroying habitat.
• Ivory from these animals is sold money used to
  compensate people whose villages are destroyed by
  elephant pop. And used for conservation
  purposes.
• Should this sale of ivory be allowed?

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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• D. Predator and Pest Control
• Many wild animals killed, trapped, poisoned
  because they threaten people, livestock or crops
• Ex coyotes, bobcats, prairie dogs
• Some killed unintentionally by eating prey thats
  been poisoned (rodents)
• Some killed for sport
• Animal Damage Control Program kills 700,000
  animals (100,000 are coyotes) to prevent
  competition or predation on livestock.
• Animal protectors say this is cruel and mostly
  ineffective- encourage ranchers to find less
  destructive ways to protect livestock (using
  herders, guard dogs, fencing)

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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• E. Exotic/invasive species-
• One of the greatest threats to biodiversity
• Ex zebra mussel, kudzu, purple loosestrife,
  Asian long-horned beetle, adelgid
• Species from US have invaded other countries too
• EX Leidys comb jellyfish outcompete organisms
  in Black Sea Bristle worms taking over coast of
  Poland

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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• Diseases
• 1904 shipment of fungus- infected Chestnut tree
  seedlings shipped from China.
• Caused Chestnut tree blight- reduced population
  almost to extinction
• Chestnut was a very important, valuable crop- it
  sprouted quickly, nuts provided food for many
  animals, rot resistant so good for building

Blight canker on tree- scientists looking for
blight resistant genes so can breed trees that
will resist disease.
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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• Pollution
• DDT used in 1950s as pesticide accumulated in
  aquatic ecosystems, fish eaten by eagles, eagles
  become poisoned, weakens eggshells, shells break,
  babies die, population declines.
• Lead from spent shotgun shells ingested by bottom
  feeding waterfowl, store lead shot in gizzard
  instead of stones, lead builds in body,
  paralysis, muscle atrophy, tremors, listlessness,
  bile stained feces are common symptoms- what
  would happen to a hunter that ate these birds?

Trumpeter swans are especially vulnerable- above-
foraging bird Below- dead swan from lead poisoning
Lead shot has been banned since 2001.
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Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• H. Genetic Assimilation
• When rare/endangered species interbreed with
  closely related species that are more numerous it
  dilutes gene pool
• Hybridized timber wolves mate with coyotes or
  domestic dogs- it introduces foreign genes into
  an already dangerously small gene pool reduces
  possibility of purebreds to mate.

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ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT BIODIVERSITY
PROTECTION
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Hunting Fishing Laws

• In 1870s animals not protected because people
  thought there would be plenty to go around.
  (Bison went from 6 million to few hundred during
  this time)
• H F laws enacted in 1890s in most states
• Restored habitat, planted food crops, etc.
• Mainly protected game animals
• Caused increase in many species including deer,
  bison, wild turkeys

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Endangered Species Act (ESA)

• Established in 1973
• Identify protect all endangered species
• Endangered- verge of extinction
• Threatened- likely to become endangered locally
  (might not be threatened throughout range) ex
  grizzly bear, bald eagles
• Vulnerable- naturally rare, locally depleted, may
  be put on list
• According to ESA, one cannot
• harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, trap, kill,
  capture, collect either accidentally or on
  purpose
• Import or export in US
• Posses, sell, transport, or ship any endangered
  species, its parts, or anything made from its
  parts.

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Endangered Species Act (ESA)

• 1. US Fish and Wildlife must compile a list of
  endangered threatened species
• 2.Endangered threatened sp. May not be caught,
  killed, sold or traded.
• 3.federal gov. may not carry out any project to
  further jeopardize any species.
• 4.USFWS must prepare a species recovery plan for
  each endangered threatened species.

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Endangered Species Act

• Problems
• Slow process from initial petition to final
  determination
• Limited funding
• Political pressure
• Listing moratoria
• Changing administrative policies
• Many classified as warranted, but precluded for
  lack of funds or local support. 18 species have
  gone extinct waiting for protection.
• Preserving land is a better approach.
• Many species are indicator species

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Recovery Plans

• Must be submitted by Fish and Wildlife Services
  for all species listed as endangered.
• Must show how populations will be rebuilt to
  sustainable levels
• Takes long time due to cost and politics so
  habitat is usually destroyed in planning process
• 13 million on larger species of mammals only 5
  million on 137 invertebrates and 532 plants put
  together.
• Funding often based on emotions politics vs.
  biology
• Success stories
• American alligator, Bald Eagle, Peregrine falcon

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Recovery Plans

• Opponents of ESA
• ESA was overridden in 1978 when Tellico Dam built
  in TN, threatened snail darter fish.
• 33 billion industry hindered when old-growth
  forests are preserved for northern spotted owl.
  By protecting the owl we are protecting lots of
  other species.

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Private Land and Critical Habitat

• If land had end. species on it, it must be
  protected.
• Cannot use or sell land
• Many private owners resent this and will shoot,
  shovel, and shut up or ask for compensation for
  lost value due to ESA regulations.
• Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)- land owner
  allowed to harvest resources or build as long as
  species benefits overall.

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Reauthorizing the Endangered Species Act

• Expired in 1992
• Opponents- see it as plot to take away private
  land, puts plants animals before people
• Supporters- essential to protecting nature and
  maintaining viability of planet
• 2 Proposals
• Environmentalists- want protection of habitat not
  just individual species require deadlines HCPs
  reviewed by scientists increase penalties
• Opposers- include all individuals with vested
  interest in area take cheapest route to save
  species no consultation needed from scientists

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Minimum Viable Populations

• If population is too small, genetic diversity may
  not be great enough to keep a healthy population
  going.
• Island biogeography- population can decline
  catastrophically due to environmental change or
  genetic problems when confined to limited
  geographic ranges (EO Wilson RH MacArthur)
• Leads to inbreeding which makes species weaker.
• Occurring with cheetahs grizzly bears

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Theory of Island Biogeography

• Communities on large island tend to have more
  species.
• The found is determined by a balance btwn
  immigration and extinction
• 2 features affect these rates
• 1. island size
• 2. distance from the nearest mainland
• Fast Fact 90loss of habitat causes extinction
  of 50 of species on the island

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Habitat Protection

• Are we spending more on species whose genetic
  diversity is already so low, its already doomed?
• If we breed animals in zoos release them, will
  we have a habitat to release them into?
• By protecting habitat we protect many species not
  just one.

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International Wildlife Treaties

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered
  Species (CITES)
• Est. in 1975
• Worldwide ban and protection of end. Flora
  fauna
• Developing countries have more pressing problems
  than protecting species
• Difficult to keep track of smuggling- law
  enforcement lax.

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Captive Breeding Species Survival Plans

• Many species caught from wild and put in zoos-
  80 die in transit.
• Now, more species are being produced from
  breeding in captivity.
• Bats, whales, reptiles will not breed in cages
• Zoos could provide money resources (radios,
  training, etc) to native habitats to preserve
  animals in native areas.
• Would you favor saving disease organisms,
  parasites, or vermin or should we use our limited
  resources to save only beautiful, interesting,
  useful organisms?
• Species Survival Plan- move animals between zoos
  for mating to keep good genetic diversity

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Botanical Gardens Germ Plasm Banks

• Botanical gardens are like zoos for plants
• Germ Plasm Banks- are sperm banks for plants
  and animals. Keep seed or sperm/egg viable in
  case populations become endangered/extinct.

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Characteristics of species which make them prone
to extinction

• Characteristic
• Low reproductive rate (K strategist)
• Specialized niche
• Narrow distribution
• Feeds _at_ high trophic level
• Fixed migratory patterns
• Rare
• Commercially valuable
• Large territorities

• Example
• Blue whale, panda, rhinoceros
• Blue whale, panda, everglades kite
• Many island species, elephant seal, desert
  pupfish
• Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear
• Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles
• Many island species, African violet, orchids
• Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare
  plants
• California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther

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Private Organizations

• Many private organizations work to protect
  species worldwide, often more effectively than
  government agencies.
• World Wildlife Fund sustainable use of
  resources and wildlife protection
• Nature Conservancy has purchased land to turn
  into nature preserves in 29 countries
• Conservation International identifies
  biodiversity hot spots