George Koutsothanasis Nicole Rebusi Kate Modica Ashley Davis

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George KoutsothanasisNicole RebusiKate
ModicaAshley Davis
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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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INVERTEBRATE CIRCULATION

• Two types of invertebrate circulation
• Open circulation
• Closed circulation
• Both have three basic components
• A circulatory fluid (blood), a set of tubes
  (blood vessels), and a muscular pump (heart).

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CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from
  the interstital fluid.
• Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the
  blood and the interstital fluid bathing the
  cells.
• Earthworms, squids, octopuses, and all
  vertebrates have closed circulatory systems.

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OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• There is no distinction between blood and
  hemolymph.
• One or more hearts pump the hemolymph into an
  interconnected system of sinuses, which are
  spaces around organs.
• Here chemical exchange occurs between lymph and
  body cells.

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VerteBRATE Circulation

• Often called the cardiovascular system.
• The vertebrate heart has one or two atria
• The chambers that receive blood returning to the
  heart.
• One or two ventricles
• The chambers that pump blood out of the heart.

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Blood vessels

• Three main kinds
• Arteries- carry blood away from the heart to
  organs throughout the body and branch into
  arterioles- small vessels that convey blood to
  capillaries.
• Veins-a vessel that returns blood to the heart.
• Capillaries- microscopic vessels with very thin,
  porous walls.
• Networks of these vessels, called capillary beds,
  infiltrate each tissue.

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ARTERIES
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VEINS
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The Human HEART

• The human heart is made up of 4 chambers.
• The two atria have relatively thin walls and
  serve as collection chambers for blood returning
  to the heart.
• The ventricles have thicker walls- the left
  ventricle pumps blood to all body organs.

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The cardiac Cycle

• One complete sequence of pumping and filling.
• The contraction phase of the cycle is called
  systole, and the relaxation phase is diastole.
• The volume of blood per minute that the left
  ventricle pumps out into the systemic circuit is
  called cardiac output.
• Cardiac output depends on heart rate and stroke
  volume.

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Blood circulation

• Blood delivers nutrients and removes wastes
  throughout an animals body.
• Blood travels over a thousand times faster in the
  aorta than in capillaries.

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Respiration

• There are many systems in the bodies of animals,
  each of which serve a very important purpose
  without which we wouldnt exist. The Respiratory
  System however serves a purpose that is not too
  difficult to understand. The Respiratory System
  and the Circulatory System are directly linked.
  Each of these relies on the other. If one fails,
  so does the other.
• Respiration is the actual act of gas exchange.
  Although some may think this is a simple process,
  it is important to note that it is much more
  complicated.

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Gas Exchanging Mechanisms

• There are different types of gas exchanging
  mechanisms in animals depending on their natural
  habitat.
• Fish, because they live in aquatic biomes,
  adapted organs called gills where gas exchange
  takes place.
• Insects, being simpler organisms than mammals,
  have a tracheal system. This is a system of
  tubes that branch throughout the body.
• Mammals and birds have developed organs called
  lungs. Lungs are different than tracheal systems
  in insects in that they are located in one
  designated in location and do not branch out to
  the entire body. That is why animals with lungs
  also have a circulatory system.

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Gills

• Gills are outfoldings in the bodies of fish.
  Fish have such a different respiratory system
  than land animals because they rely on obtaining
  their oxygen from water as opposed to air.
  Oxygen is much more scarce in water, especially
  the deeper you go where there is less
  phytoplankton producing oxygen in the water.
• Fishes gills do something called ventilation.
  Ventilation is the process by which water enters
  a fishs mouth, passes through the pharynx, flows
  over the gills and exits the body.
• Fish spend a lot of energy during ventilation
  because the oxygen per unit of volume is very
  low, and they must obtain as much as possible.
• Fishes bodies have developed a mechanism called
  countercurrent exchange. This mechanism is very
  effective and ensures that fish consume the least
  amount of energy as possible when they are
  undergoing respiration. Basically the blood in a
  fishs body flows opposite to the movement of
  water past the gills so that the maximum amount
  of oxygen can be picked up.

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Tracheal Systems in Insects

• This is a system of air tubes that branch
  throughout the body.
• Larger tubes called tracheae open to the outside.
• All of the bodys cells are within a short
  distance from the respiratory medium.
• This system suffices for small insects because
  the trachea brings in enough oxygen and gets rid
  of enough carbon dioxide to support cellular
  respiration.
• Larger insects must ventilate their tracheal
  systems with rhythmic body movements.

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Mammalian Respiratory Systems

• Mammalian lungs are located in the thoraic cavity
  and have a spongy texture. They have a moist
  epithelium which is the respiratory surface.
• In mammals the trachea and the esophagus are
  right next to each other, so there must be a
  system to separate air from food. Whenever food
  is swallowed the larynx moves up so that the
  epiglottis seals with the glottis. Imagine if
  your windpipe and esophagus were constantly open
  simultaneously?
• The vocal cords are located in the larynx. Sound
  is produce when muscles in the voice box are
  tensed. These muscles are stretched so that they
  vibrate.

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Mammalian Respiratory Systems

• The trachea eventually branches into two bronchi
  which lead to each lung.
• As soon as we get into the lung, each bronchus
  separates into thinner and finer tubes called
  bronchioles.
• At the end of all the bronchioles are clusters of
  air sacs called alveoli. It is on the moist
  epithelial surface of the millions of alveoli
  found in lungs that gas exchange occurs.

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Breathing Ventilates the Lungs

• The process that ventilates the lungs is called
  breathing. Breathing consists of the inhalation
  and exhalation of air.
• Mammals ventilate their lungs through a process
  called negative pressure breathing. This
  basically works like a suction pump that sucks
  air into the lungs instead of pushing into the
  lungs.
• Mammalian breathing relies on muscles that change
  the volume of the rib cage and chest cavity.
• The muscle responsible for changing the chest
  cavitys volume is called the diaphragm. It is a
  sheet of skeletal muscle which forms the bottom
  layer of the chest cavity.

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How a Bird Breathes

• Ventilation is much more complex in birds than in
  mammals. Birds have about nine air sacs separate
  from the lungs that are used to trap air.
• The air sacs are just pathways to the lungs. The
  lungs are where the official gas exchange occurs.
• Instead of alveoli, birds have tiny channels
  called parabronchi. Air flows through
  parabronchi in one direction.

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Control of Breathing in Humans

• Breathing in humans is a voluntary and
  involuntary action. Although we can control the
  rate at which we breath there are automatic
  mechanisms that regulate our breathing.
• The breathing control centers are located in two
  distinct regions of the brain, the medulla
  oblongata and the pons.
• Secondary control over breathing is exerted by
  sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that
  monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations
  in the blood as well as blood pH.

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The Role of Partial Pressure Gradients

• Diffusion of a gas depends on differences in a
  quantity called partial pressure.
• A gas always diffuses from an area of higher to
  lower pressure.
• Blood that arrives at the lungs via the pulmonary
  arteries has a lower pressure of oxygen and
  higher pressure of carbon dioxide.

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Respiratory Pigments

• Since oxygen has a low solubility in water a
  problem is posed to animals that rely on the
  circulatory system to deliver oxygen.
• Most animals transport most of their oxygen bound
  to certain proteins called respiratory proteins
  instead of in dissolved form.

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Respiration Activity

1. The part of an animals body where gases are
   exchanged with the surrounding environment is
   called the ________________.
2. _______________ is the mechanism through which
   blood flows in the opposite direction of blood
   flow.
3. The _______________ is made up if air tubes that
   branch through the entire body.
4. These sites of gas exchange called ________ are
   restricted to one location.
5. The ________ moves upward in order to tip the
   epiglottis over the glottis.
6. Exhaled air rushes by a pair of ____________ in
   the larynx.
7. From the larynx, air passes into the _________.
8. The tinies bronchioles dead-end as a cluster of
   air sacs called ________.
9. Lung volume increases as a result of contraction
   of the rib muscles and the _________.
10. The volume of air a mammal inhales and exhales
    with each breath is called _____________.

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Activity Answers

1. Respiratory Surface
2. Countercurrent Exchange
3. Tracheal System
4. Lungs
5. Larynx
6. Vocal Cords
7. Trachea
8. Alveoli
9. Diaphragm
10. Tidal Volume

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The Immune System
The body has two mechanisms in defending itself
Nonspecific defense mechanism and specific
defense mechanism. It is then subdivided into
three lines of defenses.
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Nonspecific Defense Mechanism

• First line of defense.
• Is external and consists of epithelial tissues
  that cover and line our bodies and the secretions
  they produce.
• Examples are skin and mucous membrane.
• Key terms
• Antimicrobial proteins function in nonspecific
  defense either by attacking microbes directly or
  by impeding their production.
• Complement System a group of at least 20 blood
  proteins that cooperate with other defense
  mechanism. It amplifies the inflammatory
  response, enhances phagocytosis, and directly
  lyses pathogens.

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• Second line of defense
• Is internal.
• It is triggered by chemical signals and involves
  phagocytic cells and antimicrobial protein that
  indiscriminately attacks invaders that penetrates
  the bodys outer barriers.
• Inflammation is a sign of this defense.
• Includes phagocytic white blood cells,
  antimicrobial proteins, and the inflammatory
  response.
• Key Terms
• Phagocytosis the injection of invading organisms
  by certain types of white cells.
• Neutrophills white blood cells cells damaged by
  invading microbes release chemical signals that
  attract neutrophils from the blood. They enter
  infected tissue,engulfing and destroying microbes
  there.
• Macrophages are the largest phagocytic cells.
  They engulf a microbe in vacuole that fuses with
  a lysosome.
• Natural Killer (NK) cells destroy virus infected
  body cells

Inflammatory response a line of defense
triggered by penetration of skin or mucous
membranes in which small blood vessels in the
vicinity of an injury dilate and become leakier,
enhancing filtration of leukocytes. How is the
inflammatory response initiated? Chemical
signals such as histamine are released by cells
of the body in response to tissue injury.
NK cells
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Specific Defense Mechanism

• Third line of defense
• Known as The Immune System it works
  simultaneously with the second line of defense,
  but it responds in a specific way to particular
  microorganisms, aberrant body cells, toxins, and
  other substances marked by foreign molecules.
• Includes the production of proteins called
  antibodies and involves a diverse group of blood
  cells called lymphocytes.

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• Lymphocytes
• B lymphocyte (B Cell)a type of lymphocyte that
  develops in the bone marrow and later produces
  antibodies.
• T lymphocyte (T Cell) a type of lymphocyte
  responsible for cell-mediated immunity that
  differentiates under the influences of the
  thymus.
• Both B Cell and T Cell circulate throughout the
  blood and lymphocytes and are concentrated in the
  spleen, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues.
• Specific. Why?
• Because lymphocytes recognize and respond to
  particular microbes and foreign molecules.
• How?

T cell
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• Antigen a foreign macromolecule that does not
  belong to the host organism and that elicits an
  immune response.
• Antibody an antigen-binding immunoglobulin,
  produced by B Cells, that functions as the
  effector in an immune response

Antigen receptors transmembrane versions of
antibody molecules that B Cells and T Cells use
to recognize specific agents.

• Effector Cell a muscle cell or gland cell that
  performs the bodys responses to stimuli.
• Memory Cells long-lived cells bearing receptors
  for the same antigen.

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Immunity

• Acquired Immunity highly specific develops only
  after the body is exposed to inducing agents
• Innate Immunity nonspecific present before any
  exposure to pathogens and is effective from the
  time of birth.

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Activity 1 Immune System

• Word Bank

• Complete Sentences
• ___________ are the largest phagocytic cells that
  
• extend long pseudopodia that can attach to
• polysaccharides on a microbes surface.
• 2. Damage to tissue by a physical injury or by
  the entry
• of microorganisms triggers a localized
  ___________,
• increasing the local blood supply.
• 3. Attract phagocytes to an area and is secreted
  by
• endothelial cells blood vessels and monocytes,
  are
• called__________ molecules.
• 4. ____________ are short lived cells that combat
  the
• same antigen.
• 5. Long lived cells bearing receptors specific
  for the same
• antigen._____________.
• 6. How many lines of defense are there ___.
• 7. Cells damaged by invading microbes release
  chemical
• signals that attract _________from the blood.
• 8.________ is produced by circulating leukocytes
  .
• 9._______T lymphocytes kill cancer cells and
  cells infected by

Effector Cells Macrophages Histamine Chemokines Ne
utrophils Cytotoxic Inflammatory response Memory
cells 3
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Activity 2 Immune System

• True or False
• 1.Lymphocytes are a part of the second line of
  defense.
• 2.Anti-microbal proteins are the first line of
  defense.
• 3.B cells are a type of lymphocyte.
• 4. Natural killers do not attack o the viruses
  membrane and cause the cell to lyse.
• 5.Inflammatory response is initiated by chemical
  signals.
• 6.Interestrial fluid is found in blood vessels.
• 7.Only B cells circulate throughout the blood.
• 8. Antigens do not interact with specific
  lymphocytes, its at random.
• 9. Lysozymes digest the cell walls of many
  bacteria.
• 10.The complement system carries out steps that
  lead to the lyses of microbes.

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Answer

• Activity 2
• False
• False
• True
• False
• True
• False
• False
• False
• True
• True

• Activity1
• Macrophages
• Inflammatory response
• Chemokines
• Effector cells
• Memory cells
• 3
• Neutrophils
• Histamine
• Cytotoxic