Title: Nausea, vomiting and heart burn
1Nausea, vomiting and heart burn
2Objectives You students will be able to
- get a detailed history and associated symptoms.
- get the DD depending on physical finding and
proper diagnostic approach. - Recognize and treat Typhoid.
- Evaluate and manage heart burn.
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4In 1906, Irish immigrant Mary Mallon worked as a
cook in the Oyster Bay summer home of New York
banker Charles Henry Warren and his family. By
the end of the summer, six members of the
household had contracted typhoid fever. The
Warrens hired sanitary engineer, George Soper, to
determine the source of the disease. Soper
concluded that Mallon, while immune herself to
the disease, was its carrier.
5- For three years, she was isolated on North
Brother Island, near Rikers Island, earning the
nickname "Typhoid Mary." Instructed not to cook
for others upon her release, she nevertheless
changed her name and became a cook at a maternity
hospital in Manhattan. At least 25 staff members
contracted typhoid. "Typhoid Mary" returned to
North Brother Island, where she lived alone for
23 years, until her death in 1938. She is shown
here on the island in an undated photo. She died
of a stroke after 23 years in quarantine.
6- Typhos in Greek means ,smoke and typhus fever got
its name from smoke that was believed to cause
it. Typhoid means typhus-like and thus the name
given to this disease. - The term Typhoid was given by Louis 1829 to
distinguish it from typhus fever. - It is a disease of poor environmental sanitation
and hence occurs in parts of the world where
water supply is unsafe and sanitation is
substandard.
7- The term enteric fever or typhoid fever is a
communicable disease, found only in man and
includes both typhoid fever caused by S.Typhi and
paratyphoid fever caused by S.Paratyphi A, B and
C . It is an acute generalized infection of the
reticulo endothelial system, intestinal lymphoid
tissue, and the gall bladder.
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10EPIDEMIOLOGY
11- According to the World Health Organization,
globally some 16 million cases occur annually
resulting in more than 600,000 deaths. More than
62 of the global cases occur in Asia, of which,
7 million occur annually in South East Asia.
Other countries with a high incidence include
Central and South America, Africa and Papua New
Guinea.
12- The incidence of this disease in UK is reported
to be just one case per 1,00,000 population. - In 1994, for example, 26,55,000 cases (incidence
500 cases/ million) were reported from Africa
with 1,30,000 deaths - The mean incidence of typhoid fever in developing
countries is estimated between 150 cases/million
population/year in Latin America to
1000cases/million population/year in some Asian
countries.
13- In 1885, pioneering American veterinary
scientist, Daniel E. Salmon, discovered the first
strain of salmonella from the intestine of a pig.
This strain was called salmonella choleraesuis,
It is still used to describe the genus and
species of this common human pathogen.
14- In 1880s, the typhoid bacillus was first
discovered by Eberth in spleen sections and
mesenteric lymph nodes from a patient who died
from typhoid. - Robert Koch confirmed a related finding and
succeeded in cultivating the bacterium in 1881. - Serodiagnosis of typhoid was thus made possible
by 1896. - Wright and his team prepared heat killed vaccine
from S.Typhi in 1896.
15- Salmonellae are gram ve rods, facultatively
aerobic, Motile with peritrichate flagella,
non-spore-forming - 1-3µm 0.5µm in size
- Salmonella currently comprise 2000 serotypes
- Two groups a) Enteric fever group
- b) Food poisoning group
16- The bacilli are killed at 55ºc in one
- hour or at 60ºc in 15 minutes. They are
- Killed within 5 minutes by mercuric
- chloride or 5 phenol. Boiling or
- chlorination of water and pasteurization of
- milk destroy the bacilli.
- The proportion of typhoid to
- paratyphoid A is 101, Paratyphoid B is
- rare and paratyphoid C is very rare.
- (data from India).
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19- Age group Typhoid fever may occur at any age
but it is considered to be a disease mainly of
children and young adults. In endemic areas, the
highest attack rate occurs in children aged 8-13
years. In a recent study from slums of Delhi, it
was found that contrary to popular belief, the
disease affects even children aged 1-5 years
20- Gender and race Typhoid fever cases are
more commonly seen in males than in females. On
the contrary, females have a special predilection
to become chronic carriers. - Occupation Certain categories of persons
handling the infective material and live cultures
of S. typhi are at increased risk of acquiring
infection. - Socio-economic factors It is a disease of
poverty as it is often associated with inadequate
sanitation facilities and unsafe water supplies.
21- Environmental factors Though the cases are
observed through out the year, the peak
incidence of typhoid fever is reported during
July - September. - Social factors pollution of drinking water
supplies, open air defecation, and urination, low
standards of food and personal hygiene, and
health ignorance.
22- Nutritional status Malnutrition may enhance the
susceptibility to typhoid fever by altering the
intestinal flora or other host defences. - Incubation period Usually 10-14 days but it may
be as short as 3 days or as long as 21 days
depending upon the dose of the inoculums.
23- Reservoir of infection Man is the only known
reservoir of infection - cases or carriers. - Period of communicability A case is infectious
as long as the bacilli appear in stool or urine.
24- Mode of transmission The disease is transmitted
by faeco - oral route or urine oral routes
either directly through hands soiled with faeces
or urine of cases or carriers or indirectly by
ingestion of contaminated water, milk, food, or
through flies. Contaminated ice, ice-creams, and
milk products are a rich source of infection.
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- Carriers may be temporary or chronic.
- Temporary (convalescent or incubatory) carriers
usually excrete bacilli up to 6-8 weeks. By the
end of one year, 3-4 per cent of cases continue
to excrete typhoid bacilli. - Persons who excrete the bacilli for more than a
year after a clinical attack are called chronic
carriers.
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30Salmonella typhi infect the body via the Peyer's
patches of the small intestine. The bacteria
migrates to mesenteric lymph nodes and arrive via
the blood in the liver and spleen during the
first exposure. After multiple replication in the
above locations, the bacteria Migrates back into
the Peyer's patches of the small intestine for
the secondary exposure and consequently the
clinical symptoms are seen. Inflammation in the
small intestine leads to ulcers and necrosis.
31- First week The disease classically presents
with step-ladder fashion rise in temperature (40
- 41C) over 4 to 5 days, accompanied by
headache, vague abdominal pain, and constipation. -
- Second week Between the 7 th -10 th day of
illness, mild hepato-splenomegally occurs in
majority of patients. Relative bradycardia may
occur and rose-spots may be seen.
32- Third week The patient will appear in the
"typhoid state" which is a state of prolonged
apathy, toxaemia, delirium, disorientation and/or
coma. Diarrhea will then become apparent. If left
untreated by this time, there is a high risk
(5-10) of intestinal hemorrhage and perforation. - Rare complications Typhoid hepatitis, Emphyema,
Osteomyelitis, and Psychosis. - 2-5 patients may become Gall-bladder
carriers. -
33Rose spots
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35DIAGNOSIS
36- Typhoid should be considered in any patient with
prolonged unexplained fever in endemic areas and
in those with a history of recent travel to
endemic area. - Prolonged fever, rose spots, relative bradycardia
and leucopenia make typhoid strongly suggestive.
37- Widal test measures titres of serum agglutinins
against somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens
which usually begin to appear during the 2nd
week. In the absence of recent immunization, a
high titre of antibody to O antigen gt 1640 is
suggestive but not specific.
38- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be performed
on peripheral mononuclear cells. The test is more
sensitive than blood culture alone (92 compared
with 50-70) but requires significant technical
expertise - Blood cultures are positive in 70-80 of cases
during the 1st week. - Stool and urine cultures are usually positive
(45-75) during the 2nd-3rd week. - Bone marrow aspirate cultures give the best
confirmation (85-95) - The tracing of carriers in cities by sewer swab
technique
39Rapid Tests for Diagnosing Typhoid
- Typhidot test that detects presence of IgM and
IgG in one hour (sensitivitygt95, Specificity
75) - Typhidot-M, that detects IgM only (sensitivity
90 and specificity 93) - Typhidot rapid (sensitivity 85 and Specificity
99) is a rapid 15 minute immunochromatographic
test to detect IgM. - IgM dipstick test
40Wilson and Blair bismuth sulphite medium jet
black colony with a metallic sheen
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42Management of typhoid fever
- General Supportive care includes
- Maintenance of adequate hydration.
- Antipyretics.
- Appropriate nutrition.
- Specific Antimicrobial therapy is the mainstay
treatment. Selection of antibiotic should be
based on its efficacy, availability and cost. - Chloramphenicol , Ampicillin ,Amoxicillin ,
Trimethoprim Sulphamethoxazole ,Fluroquinolones - In case of quinolone resistance Azithromycin,
3rd generation cephalosporins (ceftriaxone)
43Control of Typhoid fever
- Measures directed to reservoir
- a) Case detection and treatment
- b) Isolation
- c) Disinfection of stools and urine
- d) Detection treatment of carriers
44- Measures at routes of Transmission
- a) Water sanitation
- b) Food sanitation
- c) Excreta disposal
- d) Fly control
- Measures for Susceptibles
- a) immunoprophylaxis
- b) health education
45Health Promotion
- Keep the premises and kitchen utensils clean.
- Dispose rubbish properly.
- Keep hands clean and fingernails trimmed.
- Wash hands properly with soap and water before
eating or handling food, and after toilet or
changing diapers. - Drinking water should be from the mains and
preferably boiled. - Purchase fresh food from reliable sources. Do not
patronize illegal hawkers.
46- Avoid high-risk food like shellfish, raw food or
semi-cooked food. - Wear clean washable aprons and caps during food
preparation. - Clean and wash food thoroughly.
- Scrub and rinse shellfish in clean water. Immerse
them in clean water for sometime to allow
self-purification. - Remove the viscera if appropriate
-
47- Store perishable food in refrigerator, well
covered. - Handle and store raw and cooked food especially
seafood separately (upper compartment of the
refrigerator for cooked food and lower
compartment for raw food) to avoid cross
contamination. - Clean and defrost refrigerator regularly and keep
the temperature at or below 4ºc
48- Cook food thoroughly.
- Do not handle cooked food with bare hands wear
gloves if necessary. - Consume food as soon as it is done.
- If necessary, refrigerate cooked leftover food
and consume as soon as possible. Reheat
thoroughly before consumption. Discard any addled
food items. - Exclude typhoid carrier from handling food and
from providing care to children.
49Specific protection
- Injectable Typhoid vaccine
- (TYPHIM Vi,TYPHIVAX)
- 2. The live oral vaccine
- (TYPHORAL)
50- Injectable Typhim -Vi
- This single-dose injectable typhoid vaccine, from
the bacterial capsule of S. typhi strain of
Ty21a. - This vaccine is recommended for use in children
over 2 years of age. - Sub-cutaneous or intramuscular injection
- Efficacy 64 -72
51- Typhoral
- This is a live-attenuated-bacteria vaccine
manufactured from the Ty21a strain of S. typhi. - The efficacy rate of the oral typhoid vaccine
ranges from 50-80 - Not recommended for use in children younger than
6 years of age.
52- 4. The course consists of one capsule orally,
taken an hour before food with a glass of water
or milk (1stday,3rd day 5th day) - 5. No antibiotic should be taken during this
period - 6. Immunity starts 2-3 weeks after administration
and lasts for 3 years - 7. A booster dose after 3 years
53- Indications for Vaccination
- Travelers going to endemic areas who will be
staying for a prolonged period of time, - Persons with intimate exposure to a documented
S. typhi carrier - 3. Microbiology laboratory technologists who work
frequently with S. typhi - 4.Immigrants
- 5. Military personnel
54Side effects. Injectable Typhim -Vi The most
common adverse reactions are injection site pain,
erythema, and induration, which almost always
resolve within 48 hours of vaccination.
Occasional fever, flu-like episodes, headache,
tremor, abdominal pains, vomiting, diarrhea, and
cervical pains have been reported.
55Side effects
- Typhoral
- Nausea, abdominal pain and cramps, vomiting,
fever, headache, and rash or urticaria may occur
in some instances but are rare.
56Evaluation-Management of Heart Burn
57Objectives You students will be able to
- get a detailed history and associated symptoms.
- get the DD depending on physical finding and
proper diagnostic approach. - Recognize and treat Typhoid.
- Evaluate and manage heart burn.