Nonsense Robert J. Gula

1
NonsenseRobert J. Gula

• Chapter 1-8 Review
• I just know that that doesnt make any sense,
  but Im not sure why.

2
Chapter 1

• Everyday Nonsense

3
General Principles

• Patterns that seem to characterize the ways
• that people tend to respond and think
• People
• Tend to believe what they want to believe
• Tend to project their own biases or experiences
  upon situations

4
General Principles Cont.

• 3. tend to generalize from a specific event
• 4. tend to get personally involved in the
  analysis of an issue and tend to let their
  feelings overcome a sense of objectivity
• 5. are not good listeners (hear selectively)
• 6. are eager to rationalize
• 7. are often unable to distinguish what is
  relevant from what is irrelevant

5
General Principles Cont.

• 8. are easily diverted from the specific issue at
  hand
• 9. are usually unwilling to explore thoroughly
  the ramifications of a topic tend to
  oversimplify
• 10. often judge from appearances
• 11. often simply dont know what they are talking
  about, especially in general discussion

6
General Principles Cont.

• 12. rarely act according to a set of consistent
  standards
• 13. often do not say what they mean and do not
  mean what they say

7

• Most people want to feel that issues are
• simple rather than complex, want to have
• their prejudices confirmed, want to feel that
• they belong with the implication that others
• do not, and need to pinpoint an enemy to
• blame for their frustrations.
• --J.A.C. Brown, Techniques of Persuasion

8
Chapter Two

• Emotional Language

9
What are certain emotional needs that people have?
10
Why is a person who knows how to deceive us
dangerous?
11
Why is it important for people to know how their
emotions can be preyed upon?
12
APPEAL TO PITY

• Instead of giving carefully documented reasons,
  evidence, and facts, a person appeals to our
  sense of pity, compassion, brotherly love.

13
PLEA FOR SPECIAL TREATMENT

• A variation of the appeal to pity

14
APPEAL TO GUILT

• Three points about the appeal to guilt
• No one has the right to prey upon our emotional
  balance
• Unless sound reasons can be given for the
  speculation that we ought to feel guilty, that
  speculation is worthless
• Even if we were to feel guilty, we have been
  given no reasons to do what the ad suggests.

15
APPEAL TO FEAR

• Tries to frighten us into a specific action or
  into accepting a specific belief.
• If you dont do X, then Y will happen.
• Sometimes personally directed
• Sometimes more subtle

16
APPEAL TO SINCERITY

• noun, plural -ties. freedom from deceit,
  hypocrisy, or duplicity probity in intention or
  in communicating earnestness.
• www.dictionary.com

17
APPEAL TO SINCERITY

• A person adopts a very earnest, sincere,
  possibly self-effacing, and certainly humble
  tone.
• The emphatic verb forms (forms with the
  auxiliaries does and do) and adverbs really,
  genuinely, truly, absolutely, actually are used
  to add to the feeling of sincerity.

18
APPEAL TO HOPE

• noun 1.the feeling that what is wanted can be had
  or that events will turn out for the best to
  give up hope. 2.a particular instance of this
  feeling the hope of winning. 3.grounds for this
  feeling in a particular instance There is little
  or no hope of his recovery. 4.a person or thing
  in which expectations are centered The medicine
  was her last hope. 5.something that is hoped for
  Her forgiveness is my constant hope.
• www.dictionary.com
• Sometimes, hope is all we have

19
APPEAL TO FLATTERY

• noun, plural -teries. 1.the act of
  flattering.2.a flattering compliment or speech
  excessive, insincere praise.
• www.dictionary.com
• When we are flattered, we tend to confuse our
  positive feelings toward the flatterer with what
  that person is actually saying.

20
APPEAL TO STATUS

• noun 1.the position of an individual in relation
  to another or others, esp. in regard to social or
  professional standing.2.state or condition of
  affairs Arbitration has failed to change the
  status of the disagreement. 3.Law. the standing
  of a person before the law.adjective
  4.conferring or believed to confer elevated
  status a status car a status job
• www.dictionary.com

21
APPEAL TO THE BANDWAGON

• Appeals to our need to belong

22
APPEAL TO LOVE/ APPEAL TO TRUST/ APPEAL TO
FRIENDSHIP

• Either youre with me or youre against me!
  If you really trusted (loved) me, then youd go
  along with me!
• BTW not going along with someone doesnt mean
  that you do not love or trust that person, or
  that you are not his or her friend
• remember that true friendship sometimes demands
  that we disagree.

23
APPEAL TO PRIDE OR LOYALTY

• PRIDEnoun 1.a high or inordinate opinion of
  one's own dignity, importance, merit, or
  superiority, whether as cherished in the mind or
  as displayed in bearing, conduct, etc.2.the state
  or feeling of being proud.3.a becoming or
  dignified sense of what is due to oneself or
  one's position or character self-respect
  self-esteem.4.pleasure or satisfaction taken in
  something done by or belonging to oneself or
  believed to reflect credit upon oneself civic
  pride. 5.something that causes a person or
  persons to be proud His art collection was the
  pride of the family. 6.the best of a group,
  class, society, etc. This bull is the pride of
  the herd. 7.the most flourishing state or period
  in the pride of adulthood.
• LOYALTY-noun, plural -ties. 1.the state or
  quality of being loyal faithfulness to
  commitments or obligations.2.faithful adherence
  to a sovereign, government, leader, cause,
  etc.3.an example or instance of faithfulness,
  adherence, or the like a man with fierce
  loyalties.
• www.dictionary.com

24
ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM

• the appeal to the crowd, to the mob, to the
  gallery.

25
Chapter 3

• Emotional Language Propaganda

26
BANDWAGON

• Everyone is doing it. Therefore, you should be
  doing it too.

27
REPETITION

• The propagandist says something over and over
  again.

28
CONFIDENCE

• The propagandist also speaks confidently. He
  gives the impression of knowing what he is
  talking about.

29
EARNESTNESS AND SINCERITY

• The more earnest and sincere a person appears,
  the more readily he will be believed.

30
OVERSIMPLIFICATION

• The propagandist takes one side of the situation
  and treats that one side as if it were the only
  side.

31
NAME-CALLING

• The propagandist assigns abusive epithets or
  uses names that have strong pejorative emotional
  associations to people or ideas he doesnt like,
  and he assigns flattering epithets or uses names
  that have strong positive emotional associations
  to people or ideas he does like.

32
STEREOTYPING

• The propagandist takes one characteristics of a
  person, exaggerates it, and then regards it as
  the only characteristic.

33
THE GLITTERING GENERALITY

• The propagandist makes broad, sweeping
  statements, usually ones with complex and
  far-reaching ramifications, but he ignores the
  complexities and the ramifications.

34
SLOGANS

• The audience will remember the clever slogan
  without challenging the meaning

35
TRANSFER

• This technique encourages us to transfer our
  emotions from one source to another.

36
TESTIMONIAL

• An important or prominent person or organization
  speaks on behalf of an idea or product.

37
PLAIN FOLKS

• Im just like one of you.

38
SNOB APPEAL

• propaganda may exploit a persons need for
  status or his desire to feel special.

39
STATISTICS WITHOUT CONTEXT

• The propagandist may give you plenty of
  statistics, but he rarely gives you the
  background of those statistics.

40
LARGE NUMBERS

• a variation of the bandwagon technique.

41
THE MANUFACTURED PROBLEM THE BAD GUY, THE
SCAPEGOAT

• The propagandist creates or exaggerates a
  problem, tries to convince you how serious the
  problem is, and then appeases you by blaming
  someone for that problem or by suggesting that
  his proposal will solve the problem.

42
ARRANT DISTORTION/ CARD STACKING

• Sometimes the propagandist selects his
  information to present a one-sided view
  sometimes he may even make up data to suit his
  own purposes sometimes he simply lies.

43
THE COMMAND

• When the propagandist uses this technique, he is
  appealing to those that like to be told what to
  do.

44
Chapter 4, Emotional Language and Suggestion
45

• The power of suggestion
• It reflects a belief or attitude that is not
  specifically articulated
• Puts an idea in the mind of the listener

46
Ways to Affect Suggestion

• The hint
• Tests the ground
• Provides a protective barrier
• Subject to misinterpretation
• Accent
• Loaded with implication
• Selection
• Careful selection of evidence
• Tone of Voice

47
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont

• Phraseology
• The pitcher is half empty
• The pitcher is half full
• Word Choice
• Connotative word choice
• Metaphor
• Juxtaposition
• Two statements are made. No connection is
  expressed. Because of the proximity of the two
  statements, a connection is made.

48
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont

• Image Words
• Words that make things sound better or worse than
  they are
• Irrelevant Detail
• Often inserted to bias the audience

49
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont

• Controlling phraseology
• Suggesting an answer through the wording of the
  question
• Negative image words
• Make things sound worse than they actually might
  be
• Pompous language
• Jargonese, doublespeak
• To make the mundane and trivial seem important

50
Chapter 5 Logical Fallacies
51

• Fallacy error in thinking or reasoning
• Thought process/ conclusions NOT error in fact or
  belief
• Why might an argument be unsuccessful?
• Evidence isnt thorough
• Evidence is not accurate
• A good relationship doesnt exist b/t the
  evidence and conclusion

52
Chapter 6

• Irrelevance

53
Argumentum ad hominem

• The argument directed against the speaker rather
  than toward what the speaker is saying
• Abusive ad hominem argument the personality of
  the person is criticized or attacked rather than
  what the person is saying
• Circumstantial ad hominem argument when the
  speaker judges someone and not the suggestion of
  that person

54
Guilt by Association

• A person is judged because of his associations,
  his friends, his family, not because of anything
  he has done.

55
Poisoning the Well

• When an opponent uses this technique, he casts
  such aspersions on a person that the person
  cannot possibly recover and defend himself
  without making matters worse.

56
Passing the Buck

• Tu quoque argument (shifting the blame) you do
  it, too!
• Counter question instead of answering a specific
  question, the speaker poses another question

57
Irrelevant reason/ question

• Arguments have nothing to do with the proposal up
  for discussion

58
Non sequitor

• It does not follow claims to make a cause and
  effect relationship when, in fact, there is no
  logical connection between the premise and the
  conclusion.

59
Argumentum Ad Baculum/ Appeal to Force

• The use of pressure or force may sometimes be
  useful, but it does not constitute a good reason
  for doing something

60
Appeal to Ignorance/ Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam

• One should not accept premises without proof. But
  what is important to realize is that the absence
  of proof does not necessarily mean that the
  premise is false it merely means that there is
  no proof to substantiate that premise.

61
Appeal to Authority/ Argumentum Ad Verecundiam

• A statement of opinion or of some outside source
  is often referred to in order to strengthen an
  argument. The statement or opinion of that
  outside source, however, may not be relevant to
  the specific issue at hand.

62
Ipse Dixit

• He said it
• A popular or prestigious person or someone with
  impressive titles or credentials is cited to give
  support to an idea or argument. BUT this person
  might be outside of his or her area of expertise.

63
Appeal to the Past (var. of ipse dixit)

• Quoting famous sources out of context

64
Vague Appeal to Authority

• A leading medical institution says

65
Apriority

• A type of false authority
• Arguing from a theory

66
Appeal to Faith

• Just trust me

67
Sacred Cow

• Ideas that we hold dear justice, freedom,
  democracy, law, religion

68
Aphorisms, Slogans, Cliches, Proverbs, Platitudes

• Familiar sayings sometimes used as authority to
  convince or persuade
• Such use of these familiar sayings offers neither
  proof nor evidence, nor do they even strengthen
  an argument

69
Jargon

• Sometimes used to give the impression of authority

70
Appeal to Tradition or Precedent

• Circumstances change with time what may have
  been an appropriate way of doing things five
  years ago is not necessarily an appropriate way
  now. Tradition and precedent should be respected
  but not idolized.

71
Etymology

• Citing the origin of a word to support a position
• Dont ignore the facts that the meanings of words
  change
• A word is important, not for what it once meant,
  but for what it means now

72
Appeal to Numbers

• Numbers can indicate splendid precision, but can
  also be used to mislead or deceive
• Meanaverage
• Mode most frequent number
• Median number in the middle of a series
• Percentages often sounds more impressive than
  the figures
• Vague statistics
• Misleading statistic
• Appeal to large numbers
• Misleading sampling technique
• Limited sample
• Small sample

73
Confident Speculation

• When people make assertions that are speculative
  but are expressed as if they were fact
• Personal assurances Im sure that
• Appeal to personal assurances From my
  experience Ive learned that
• Domino Theory If we do A, then B will happen.
  If B happens, then C will happen. etc.
• Appeal to omniscience when people speculate
  about what might have happened if something else
  had not happened
• Confusing speculation with fact it is fine to
  speculate, but none of us are omniscient

74
Chapter 7

• Diversion

75
Red Herring

• A detail or remark inserted into a discussion,
  either intentionally or unintentionaly, that
  sidetracks the discussion
• Humor, sarcasm, ridicule, innuendo, parody,
  bodily gesture, witty remark, interpreting
  literally what is said figuratively, upsetting
  someone, petty objection, feigning ignorance

76
The Straw Man

• When you take something your opponent has said,
  exaggerate or distort it, and then attack what
  you have exaggerated or distorted, you have
  created a straw man.
• Extending an opponents ideas, put words into
  his mouth, attacking an example, attacking the
  alternative, shifting to another problem

77
Chapter 8

• Ambiguity and Incorrect Inference

78
Verbal Ambiguity

• Verbal ambiguity occurs when one uses a word or
  phrase that has two possible meanings or
  interpretations or when there is an event that
  can have more than one interpretation.

79
Ambiguity of Statement

• -results from imprecise language

80
Ambiguity of Tone

• HOW you say something vs WHAT you say

81
Irony

• Meaning the opposite of what you say

82
Accent

• 1. quoting out of context
• 2.quoting selectively
• 3. damnation by faint praise

83
Amphiboly

• The ambiguous position of a word in a sentence

84
Grammatical Ambiguity

• 1. a phrase is restrictive or nonrestrictive
• 2. faulty or incomplete comparisons
• 3. ambiguous references of pronouns
• 4. specific words

85
Juxtaposition

• Two ostensibly unrelated statements or events
  appear in such a fashion that we are encouraged
  to infer a connection between them

86
Enthymeme

• Incomplete argument/ shortened syllogism

87
Chapter 9

• Confusion and Incorrect Reference

88
Verbal Confusion

• Many sources
• Similar words with different meanings
• General meaning without connotations
• Forgotten primary meanings

89
Equivocation

• 1. a word has two or more different meanings
• 2. when the meaning of a word shifts during
  discourse
• 3.relative words

90
Fustianism

• Bombastic, pretentious, fancy, inflated language
  and ideas can sometimes camouflage the fact that
  a speaker has nothing of consequence to say, is
  speaking nonsense, that he doesnt know what he
  is talking about, that he is just throwing words
  around, and that his words mean nothing If we
  are to talk about void, then we must define it
  and, if we can define it, then it must exist

91
Double Standards/Doublethink

• A double standard can occur when a person claims
  to sponsor a certain belief except when that
  belief applies to him.
• Do what I say, not what I do
• Doublethink Orwell, the ability to entertain
  sumultaneously two contradictory beliefs

92
Limited Perspective

• Evaluating a situation only from one perspective

93
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question

• When an argument uses one of its premises as a
  conclusion
• The conversation with George and Martha

94
Confusing Complement with the Opposite

• If I say that a performance was not good, I am
  not saying that it was a bad one

95
Composition

• This fallacy occurs when one projects the
  properties of the parts to the property of the
  whole
• Just because each band member is good doesnt
  mean that the band as a group is good

96
Division

• The assumption that what is true for the whole is
  also true for each of the parts
• Just because Stephen got into Yale assuming he
  must have been a good high school student

97
Improper Distribution or Addition

• Assumes that you can add items that cannot be
  added
• Ex. Lets cut the pledge of allegiance each
  morning, we will save two minutes a day, ten per
  week and add a day to the year

98
Definition Because of Common Characteristics

• You assume that a person or thing is a member of
  a particular group just because that person or
  thing shares a quality with other members of that
  group

99
Confusing Opinion/ Speculation/ Inference with
Fact

• i.e rumors

100
All/ Some or One/ Most

• Two or three members of the city government are
  discovered to have embezzled The whole
  government is a bunch of crooks, remarks someone

101
Chapter 10

• Confusion of Cause and Effect

102
Confusing Contributory/ Sufficient/ and Necessary
Causes

• When people do not distinguish between these
  three different relationships
• i.e. Smoking causes lung cancer

103
Confusing Remote Cause with Immediate Cause

• Be wary of the tendancy to rationalize how far
  back can one go in assigning cause?
• For want of a nail, the show was lost example

104
Rationalization

• Assigning causes that arent truly causes
• If I hadnt stayed up late, I wouldnt have
  fumbled.

105
Reversal of Cause and Effect

• Biting ones fingernails makes a person nervous

106
The Post Hoc Fallacy

• after this, therefore because of this
• Superstitions

107
Inferring that Simultaneous Occurences
Necessarily Have a Cause and Effect Relationship

• Because the air conditioner came on at the same
  time as the bell rang one must have caused the
  other

108
False Cause/ Coincidence

• Many people assign as cause-and-effect
  relationship to confirm their prejudices or to
  rationalize their errors or inadequacies.

109
Chapter 11

• Oversimplication

110
Accident

• When a general rule is applied to a situation in
  which it was not intended to apply. This fallacy
  suggests that there are no exceptions to a
  general rule or principle.

111
Complex Question

• Occurs when an issue is posed that has several
  ramifications but whose ramifications are either
  ignored or not recognized

112
Excluded Middle/ Either or Fallacy/ Black White
Fallacy

• Either you support my proposal or you dont
• Slogans love this America Love it or leave it.

113
Pigeonholing

• Stripping the issue of its complexities and by
  forcing that issue into some convienent general
  category

114
Jumping to Conclusions

• Underwear in wastebasket example

115
Fallacy of the Beard

• A person commits this fallacy when he argues that
  there is no distinction between two phenomena
  because there is no distinct point of distinction
  between the two phenomena

116
Absolutes

• Every, everyone, everything, all, always

117
The False Mean/ Fallacy of Compromise

• Sometimes compromise is necessary. But it is not
  always a desirable solution. Sometimes an extreme
  position is warranted.
• Quitting smoking example

118
Circular Definition/ Begging the Question

• You define a word so narrowly that it has to mean
  what you want it to mean

119
Fallacy of the Fall

• A type of rationalization for a person who
  doesnt want to be bothered or who doesnt want
  to take some decisive action.

120
Fallacy of Reversion

• People use this fallacy when they argue that its
  a waste of time to do something because things
  will revert to their present state

121
Fallacy of Time

• Rationalizing taking no action by leaving matters
  up to time

122
Fallacy of the Worse Evil

• They ask you to consider what might have been
  while depreciating what actually is
• So you broke your leg. Cheer up! It could have
  been your eye instead.

123
Fallacy of Determination

• This fallacy suggests that anything is possible

124
Fallacy of Idealism

• This type of glibness is used by those whose
  experience is limited and often by those whose
  lives have been sheltered

125
Fallacy of Tacit Argument

• No one is complaining therefore, they all
  agree.

126
False Dilemma

• Two extremes are presented as if they were the
  only alternatives when, in fact, there are
  actually several alternatives between the two
  extremes.

127
Chapter 12

• Erroneous Comparison and Contrast

128
Abuse of Analogy

• 1. If there is not significant similarity
• 2. when significant dissimilarity goes unnoticed
• 3.When on particular similarity is used to equate
  two very different things
• 4. when a person uses the terms of one element to
  predict the terms of another element

129
Misuse of Statistics

• Faulty or deceptive percentages
• Invalid comparison and contrast

130
Irrelevant Contrast

• When two areas that are no longer relevant are
  compared/ contrasted

131
Fallacies of Consistency

• An invalid contrast that sometimes tries to
  compare apples with oranges (two items that are
  significantly dissimilar)

132
Chapter 13

• Evasion

133
The Half-truth

• You answer a question by interpreting the words
  of that question literally, disregarding the
  spirit of the question

134
Answering a Question Ambiguously

• You respond to a question by answering the
  opposite of that question

135
Camouflaging an Answer

• Hiding an answer or giving a vague answer in
  response to a question

136
Procrastination

• Wait a little, this is not the time.

137
One Step at a Time

• Not facing everything all at once

138
Too Many Ifs

• Presents different consequences of taking action
  all which must be examined

139
Domino Theory

• If we do A, then B will happen. If B happens,
  then C will happen. If C happens, then D will
  happen

140
Red Herring

• See Ch. 7

141
Changing the Words

• Perhaps responding by redefining or changing a
  word directed at you or previously spoken

142
Argument of Tradition and Precedent

• Well, weve always done it this way I dont see
  why we should change now.

143
Rephrasing the Question

• Providing an answer in the form of the question
  rephrased

144

• Gula, Robert J. Nonsense Red Herrings, Straw Men
  and Sacred Cows How We Abuse Logic in Our
  Everyday Language.. Mount Jackson, Virginia
  Axios Press, 2006.