The French Revolution

1
The French Revolution

• Importance
• Brought the People to the forefront of politics
• Set the model for later revolutions
• Changed the political map of Europe forever.
• Chronology - Sketch of Events
• 1788-89 French State undergoes a massive
  revolution in politics but also in society and
  the way people think.
• Calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the
  catalyst for the Revolution.
• 1789-1792 - Liberal Revolution
• 1792-1794 - Radicalization
• 795-1799 - Ineffective Reaction
• 1799-1815 - Napoleon

2
Louis XV 1715-74

• Succeeded at age 5.
• Poorly educated and spent a life devoted to his
  mistresses.
• Nobles began to regain some of the power they had
  lost to Louis XIV under the regency of the Duc
  D'Orleans,
• Nobles proved incapable of governing.
• In the Parlements nobles continued to struggle
  with the monarchy until the Revolution, a
  struggle that seriously weakened it.
• Madame de Pompadour 1721-64 - for 20 years
  exercised her political intelligence for Louis
  XV.
• Madame du Barry - just as ambitious, less clever

3
Louis XVI 1774-1792

• Virtuous - but uninterested in government. In
  his Diary July 14, 1789, he wrote "Nothing", he
  meant he caught nothing hunting that day.
• Initially restored the parlements to gain
  popularity
• Married to Marie Antoinette who was extremely
  unpopular
• Lived at Versailles, isolating the royal family
  from the population of Paris

4
The Crisis of the French Monarchy

• From close of 7 Yrs War(1763) until French Rev.,
  European monarchies didnt have enough revenue
• Became agents of institutional and political
  change
• Provoked aristocratic, sometimes popular,
  resentment/resistance, led to chaos
• George III of Britain fought w/Parliament, lost
  North American colonies
• Frederick II of Prussia needed aristocratic
  influence on army/bureaucracy
• Joseph II of Austria didnt consult w/nobility,
  left them in turmoil
• French monarchy emerged from 7 Yrs War
  defeated/in debt
• Supported American revolt against Great Britain
• Interest was ½ of royal budget
• Had debt, but was unable to tap wealth of French
  nation through taxes

5
Intellectual Causes

• The Enlightenment scientific and philosophical
  thought had spread around Europe in the 18th
  Century - much larger intellectual class with
  the political ideas.
• Liberalism was popular.
• Liberty - Human Rights/Natural Rights.
• Sovereignty of the people.
• Equality - meant equal rights for all under the
  Law.
• Liberals also wanted freedom from a
  state-controlled economy.
• Property was seen as sacred. These were middle
  class property owners by and large.

6
Social Causes

• Problem of the Estates System
• First Estate The Clergy
• 1 of pop, with 10 of land.
• Had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a
  tax on the peasantry, the tithe, which generally
  went to some remote bishop or monastery rather
  than the local parish priest.
• First Estate -100,000 strong
• many poor clergymen
• Second Estate The Nobility
• 2-5 of pop, with 20 of the land.
• Great wealth and taxed the peasantry
• "feudal" resurgence in 18th century. 400,000
  people.
• Great division among the Nobility was between the
  Noblesse d'epee and the Noblesse de Robe later
  nobles whose titles came from their possession of
  public offices.

7
Third Estate- Everyone Else

• 95-97 of the pop.
• Class Divisions
• Bourgeoisie
• 8 of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20
  of Land.
• Often bought land and exploited the peasants on
  it.
• Most important group politically was the
  Bourgeoisie, and by 1788 it was very important .
• Had been growing throughout the century, to some
  extent encouraged by the monarchy.
• Well read, educated and rich.
• Had no say in running the country.
• The Urban Poor of Paris
• Artisans - factory workers, journeymen.
• very poor were probably less involved in
  politics.
• Different interests than the bourgeoisie.
• Most politicized group of poor people, possibly
  due to high literacy.

8
The Peasants

• 40 of the land, formed the vast majority of
  population, perhaps 3,000,000 people added over
  the century.
• Paid the most tax aristocrats did not pay.
• Paid the tithe to the clergy.
• Gave labor service to the State and gave services
  to their Landlords this is sometimes called
  feudal' service.
• Paid dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when
  they sold land that was in all other ways their
  own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region.
• Farmed the land, and regard it as their own,
• Not legally theirs.
• Wanted to own their own property.

9
Political Causes - The Run-Up to 1789

• Successors to Louis XIV and The Weakening of
  Absolutism
• Under Louis XIV flaws in theory of absolutism had
  been apparent
• Misuse of power, kings who couldn't rule.
• Conflict with Parlements and Ruling Classes
• Parlements were courts, not an assembly.
• Power to register laws from King
• 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the
  Parlement of Paris was the most important.
• They began to claim, a right of veto.
• A King could always override Parlements with a
  lit de justice.
• The Duc D'Orleans had actually given the
  Parlements a veto during his regency.
• Parlements had been abolished by Rene Maupeau
  (1714-1792) in the 1770s under Louis XV.
• Louis XVI revived them 1774, in an attempt to be
  popular
• Fatal mistake, - Parlements became centers of
  resistance to the King.
• Louis XVI's Government
• Not an old fashioned ancient regime.
• Some reforms, that lead people who dislike the
  French Revolution to think that things may have
  turned out very differently.

10
Monarchy seeks New Taxes

• Economic Weakness
• Revocation of Edict of Nantes1685 had struck a
  blow at French commerce.
• The Economy tottered for the next hundred years.
  
• Financially the origins of the Revolution go back
  to Louis XIV but not because of the cost of
  Versailles.
• Taxation Problems
• Richest were not taxed i.e. the Nobles and
  Clergy.
• Taxes were indirect on poorest part of
  population.
• the taille on peasant produce
• the Gabelle - on salt
• various trade tariffs
• Not enough income for the government to do its
  job.
• These taxes increased. a 28 increase in some
  parts of country in Louis XVI's reign alone-
  affected the poor the worst.
• Dependence on loans
• Banking system was not able to cope with the
  fiscal problems.
• Need for King to raise taxes that led to the
  calling of the Estates General.

11
New taxes cont. . .

• Cost of Mid Century Wars
• The Seven Years War 1756-63 cost a lot.
• The American Revolution France had more or less
  paid for the American War.
• The Cost of Versailles and the Royal household
  etc.Was NOT a big factor by the end of century -
  it used about 5 of revenue.
• Bankruptcy of the State.
• By 1780s the government was nearly bankrupt.
• Half of government income was going on paying
  debts (annual deficit 126 Million Livres.)(debt
  was almost 4 Billion Livres).
• The problem was the government could not service
  the debt.
• Several ministers did try to put it back on a
  sound basis.
• France was not after all a poor country.

12
Neckers Report

• Jacques Necker 1732-1802
• Louis XVI financial director
• Hid the real problems, made the economy sound
  better than reality
• Large portion of went to aristocrats
• made it difficult for later ministers to explain
  why higher taxes were needed.

13
Events Leading to Calling of Estates General

• Began as an aristocratic attempt to get more
  power from the king.
• 1783 Charles Alexander de Calonne 1732-1802,
• Raised loans to pay debts.
• By 1786 he did not think Parlements would approve
  another loan.
• Louis XVI and Calonne had an economic reform plan
  to tax landed property.
• Based on provincial assemblies and allowed no
  evasion by nobles.
• Opposition
• Opposed by the noblesse de Robe in the Parlements
  - they just did not want to be taxed.

14
Assembly of Notables 1787

• An "Assembly of Notables" was called to outflank
  the parlements.
• Not the same as Estates General.
• Notables criticized Calonne's plans and demanded
  a greater role for the aristocracy in government.
  
• Said the government had no right to demand new
  taxes, and that an Estates General (last called
  1614) must be called again.
• King was forced to dismiss Calonne
• Parlements had felt threatened by the calling of
  the Assembly of Notables
• A way to get round the objections and blocks that
  the Parlements had been raising.
• Parlements had also demanded an Estates General.
• New minister Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne
  (1727-1794)
• Archbishop of Toulouse
• Spent a year trying to get the Parlements to
  accept change without an Estates General.

15
1788 Coup d'etat of ParlementsDeadlock

• Parlement of Paris rejects Kings attempts to
  force change, so King abolishes Parlements.
• King said registration of laws now to be in a
  plenary court for the whole of France.
• Anarchy/revolts throughout France. This forced
  the calling of an Estates General.
• E.G. was called as a response to nobles'
  rejection of a modernization plan.

16
The Calling of the Estates General

• Representative body of the Three Estates was the
  Estates-General.
• Called in July 1788 (last met 1614), to meet in
  1789. This was the crucial step the end of
  absolutism
• Parlements were recalled and asked on how the
  Estates General should be run
• Said it should be done in the same way as in
  1614.
• This disgusted the Third estate, who would only
  have 1/3 of votes.
• Royal Council - Dec 1788 - said Third Estate
  would twice as many reps as the other two.
• Catalyst for a lot of political excitement.

17
Political Developments in Fall 1788- Spring 1789

• Rapid discussion of ideas, more radical than
  anything in the Enlightenment.
• The weeks after 25th Sept 1788 saw most radical
  change of all.
• The most famous pamphlet was by the Abbé Sieyes
  1748-1835- "What is the Third Estate?"
• -Everything
• -What has it been until Now? Nothing
• -What does it ask? - to become something
• Nobles faced a real and new revolution which
  would sweep it away.

18
Cahiers des Doleances

• A national survey of people' opinions  was
  compiled between the calling of the Estates
  General and its assembly.
• Objections to current system from Parish of
  St.Vaast, March 1789
• Lettres de Cachet (i.e. wanted due process)
• Nation should agree to its own taxes
• E.G. every 4 years (i.e. objected to no
  consultation)
• Taxes equally on all classes, inc. Nobles and
  clergy
• Third estates to have justices in the Parlements
• NO call for a republic in any Cahier But some
  reports of peasants already believing that they
  were free of manorial dues.
• The Estates General Meets May 5th 1789
• Third Estate probably ready to strengthen hand of
  King vs. nobles and clergy
• Background of rising bread prices from 1788-89 -
  people in Paris being radicalized by this at just
  the right moment

19
The Liberal Revolution

• The Estates General May 1789 - July 1789
• King still in Charge
• Estates General met May 5 1789 at Versailles
• Third Estate had twice as many Reps (agreed in
  Dec)
• Its reps were largely lawyers and Govt officials
• Still disputes over voting - e.g. should all
  estates meet together or separately.
• Third Estate kept being slighted - it refused to
  sit alone
• Other Estates invited to join with it on June
  1st.
• Events
• Third Estate Declares itself National Assembly
  June 17th
• Tennis Court Oath June 20th 1789
• King opposed it but majority of the clergy some
  nobles joined it.
• June 27th the King capitulated.
• National assembly takes name NATIONAL CONSTITUENT
  ASSEMBLY
• National Constituent Assembly July 1789 - 1791
• Nominal Absolute Monarchy
• State Church with Priests paid by State
• CREATES A LIBERAL REVOLUTION

20
King's Fatal Decision

• Louis tried to re-assert his authority - with an
  army near Versailles - 18,000 troops-Marie
  Antoinette advised him to attack it.
• King acts stupidly - tries to undermine NAT.
  Assembly but not effectively
• creates anxiety amongst its supporters -
• Abandoned the bourgeoisie and supported the
  nobility
• To revolt against the nobility the 3rd Estate
  also had to revolt against the King.
• Two Mass Uprisings of the Masses saved the Nat.
  Assembly
• Revolt of the Poor of Paris
• Rising bread prices 1788-89 - riots already in
  the spring of 1789
• Paris politicized by the elections to the E.G. -
  had continued to meet after elections.
• Paris mob storms the Bastille - JULY 14 1789
• Basically a prison, but not used very much by
  1789
• Raided to find weapons for revolutionary militias
  growing up in Paris
• troops fired into crowd, killing 98 - crowd
  storms fortress - kills troops
• Symbolic importance First re-direction of the
  Revolution by pop of Paris
• Caused similar disturbances in other cities
• Militias take name NATIONAL GUARD - led by
  Lafayette
• Take Tricolor as flag (Blue and red for Paris,
  white for the bourbon king)

21
Revolt of the Peasants - revolts from Spring 1789

• In July - Massive revolts throughout France
• The Great Fear
• fear of royal troops
• Destruction of many medieval documents
• Forced the National Assembly to abolish "feudal"
  duesAugust 4th 1789
• Peasantry had a very quite and almost
  conservative role - it had what it wanted - LAND.
  
• Economic conditions had made the Revolution take
  on such vast proportions.
• Ideological Actions of the National Constituent
  Assembly
• August 4th Laws
• All French now subject to the same laws.
• Abolished the "feudal regime" Tithes hunting
  rights venal offices
• Peasants supposed to pay compensation

22
Declaration of the Rights of Man - August 27th
1789

• Printed in 1000s of leaflets and distributed
  around France.IMPORTANCE OF PROPAGANDA
• Ideals
• equality before the law
• due process (art 7)
• natural rights - liberty, property, security and
  resistance to oppression (art 2)
• sovereignty resides in the Nation (art 3)
• law is an expression of the General Will (art.6)
• freedom of religion (art 10) Jews as well, for
  1st time)
• free speech (art 11)
• separation of powers (art 16)
• Enlightenment ideas American declarations of
  rights (e.g. Virginia in 1776)
• King and Government Move to Paris - October 6th
• Forced by the Poor Women of Paris
• Made government function under threat of mob
  violence
• France was now to peaceful for almost 3 years

23
Reconstruction of France National Constituent
Assembly

• Faced massive problems of control and state debt
  
• Administration - the Reforming of France
• Provinces replaced by 83 Departments
• Same sort of courts and laws applied throughout
  France.
• Economic Liberalism
• Gets rid of tariffs - unlimited economic freedom
• Suppresses guilds and forbids workers
  associations
• The State Debt
• Solution was to attack the Church
  -nationalization of Church lands
• Made the Revolution unpopular in many quarters.
• Emigrés begin to leave
• Split between anticlericals and pro-clericals has
  been at center of French life ever since.
• Printed bonds - assignats based on value of
  Church land - became used as money.
• The Church Civil Constitution of the Clergy July
  1790
• Made bishoprics same as departments
• Priests and bishops to be elected paid by state
  (anyone could vote - including atheists
• Church seen as part of the state - i.e. no
  separation of Church and State)
• Religious orders were abolished.
• Assembly required an oath from the clergy - to
  oppose the pope - only half did so 7 bishops

24
Constitution of 1791

• Purpose of the National Constituent Assembly
• One Chamber House
• Only men paying tax could vote
• Olmpe de Gouge wrote against this policy
• Only 50,000 would qualify to be electedi.e. less
  than the number of the nobility
• Members of National Assembly not eligible for
  election.

25
Counterrevolutionary Activities

• King's Actions Destabilize the Liberal Revolution
  
• King was becoming more and more impotent.
• June 20 1791 - Louis XVI tried to flee, but was
  stopped at Varennes and brought back June 24 a
  virtual prisoner.
• Attitude of the King made the constitutional
  monarchy of the 1791 Constitution impossible to
  work.
• No strong executive provided for apart from the
  King's ministers.

26
Reaction to Revolution Abroad

• Intellectuals
• Most Intellectuals and philosophes praised it
• Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, Beethoven
• Conservatives opposed it
• Edmund Burke - Reflections on the French
  Revolution 1790 (i.e. before the Terror).
• Good government is going to come about through
  long experience and should not be overthrown
• Government is complicated and simple schemes can
  never be satisfactory-
• Longing for how things were that goes with all
  conservatism
• The Revolution also upset other monarchs
• Not unhappy to see France weakened.
• Dd not want revolution to spread -
• End of Enlightened Despotism. There were attempts
  all over Europe to stop reform movements

27
The Wars Begin

• 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz August 27
• threatens invasion by Austria and Prussia
• not really a threat as GB would not join in
• War Period - Begins April 1792
• Beginning of a long period of war which forms a
  background to everything for the next 30 or so
  years.
• In retaliation to Dec. of Pillnitz the French
  Deputies (in Assembly) declare war on Austria -
  20th Apr 1792
• Pressure from democratic exiles from other
  countries
• Radicals thought a successful War would bring
  them support.
• Louis XVI supported the war - he hoped a loss
  would restore his position
• Robespierre opposed the war as he saw danger of
  defeat
• French armies were soon retreating
• Caused radicalization at Home.

28
A Second Radical Revolution

• Political Infighting in the Legislative Assembly
• Idea of left and Right - origins in the meetings
  of the Legislative Assembly.
• Different Factions
• Monarchists - inc. Lafayette
• The Jacobins
• a sort of elitist political clubwanted a
  republic
• met in a Dominican priory (Jacobin a name for
  OPs)
• One group of Jacobins
• known as Girondists assumed leadership
• First led by Jacque-Pierre Brissot 1754-93.
  sometimes known as Brissotins)
• April 20 1792 -declared war on Austria thinking
  that it would bring most radical revolutionaries
  to power.

29
The Second Revolution

• The Revolution became much more radical in 1792.
• Losses in the war radicalized the pop of Paris
  and the rest of France.
• The War, the Monarchy and the Press
• The Prussian Army pushed into France as far as
  Verdun
• July - the Duke of Brunswick issued a threat to
  Paris if the King was hurt.
• Girondists blamed the monarchy and Marie
  Antoinette for secret intrigues and this put the
  monarchical constitution under strain.
• Absolute freedom of the press
• Campaign of denunciation vs. the government
• Marat and his Ami du Peuple was prominent as a
  radical here.
• Process of Radicalization
• Popular agitation was transformed into something
  powerful by two factors.
• arrival of volunteer National Guardsmen from all
  over France in July (8th)
• political organization of Paris into a Commune
  and 48 Sections - all centers of insurrection.

30
Second Revolution Events

• August 10th 1792 Attack on Tuileries Palace
• People of Paris Vol attack the Tuileries Palace
  
• King had to take refuge with the Legislative
  Assembly.
• Deserted his Swiss Guard - 800 killed.
• September 1792 September Massacres
• 1200 prisoners are murdered in Paris jails as
  counter-revolutionaries.
• The Sans-Culottes
• Paris artisans, shopkeepers, wage earners and
  factory workers.
• Name comes from the fact they wore long trousers
  not the knee breeches (culottes) favored by the
  middle and professional classes.
• Wanted immediate relief from hunger,
• Resented all social inequality,
• Suspicious of representative government.
• Opposed the unregulated economy so beloved of all
  the m/c revolutionaries, including the Jacobins.
• Compelled the Legislative Assembly to agree to
  call a new assembly to write new democratic
  constitution - to be called the Convention.

31
Tulleries Palacedestroyed in 1871
32
The Rule of the Convention - 1792-95

• Creation
• Elected by universal male suffrage
• Only 7 1/2 of electorate voted. (not best
  atmosphere for a free election)
• First met September 21 1792 and declares France a
  Republic as its first act
• Girondists were still major voice but gradually
  lost control over next few months to another
  group of Jacobins known as The Mountain
• Prepared to work with the Sans-Cullottes.
• Maximilien Robespierre one of leaders.
• Political groups here were
• the Girondists or Brissotins (name from region
  deputies supposed to have come from)
• the Mountain, (name from their seats high in the
  Assembly Hall)
• the Marais - the plain.(name from their seats low
  in the Assembly Hall)
• 9 months of political struggle in the Convention.
  

33
Fighting the War

• War with Austria and Prussia which had
  radicalized the revolution was still going on.
• Revolution was saved by the slowness and weakness
  of Prussian and Austrian preparation
• Could certainly have won at first. Too busy in
  the East digesting Poland.
• Major Events
• August 1792 - LaFayette defects to Austrians
  sees no point in fighting monarchist cause in
  France.
• 20th September 1792 - Battle of Valmy - Valmy was
  the effective start of the French Revolutionary
  Wars
• November 1792
• Convention offers to help all revolutionary
  groups in Europe.
• Dec 15 1792
• The Convention abolishes feudalism in occupied
  territory - beginning of restructuring of Europe.
  
• Feb 1 1793 - growing Anglophobia reflected in
  declaration of war vs. England and Netherlands,
  by March Spain was also dec. an enemy.
• March 1793 - By now France was at War with all of
  Europe
• April 1793 - Dumouriez defects to Austria - aware
  he could not restore monarchy in France.

34
Domestic Politics In the Convention

• Condemnation and Execution of the King
• The Mountain had found Louis XVI's correspondence
  to Austria.
• Condemnation of King also put Girondists in a
  bind
• If they supported it they lost moderate support,
  if they opposed it they lost patriot support.
• Robespierre saw this.
• The King was tried as Citizen Capet - should
  have been Bourbon.
• Vote to Condemn
• No one thought Louis was innocent.
• King executed 21 Jan 1793

35
Counter Counter-Revolutionary Activity

• March 1793
• Counter-revolts going on esp. in conservative
  Catholic areas, especially in the Vendee.
• Great concern in the Convention, still under
  Girondist control, about counter revolution.
• it strengthened laws against émigrés.
• Revolutionary Tribunals were set up
• A decree was passed condemning to death all
  rebels taken in the act.
• March 21 1793 - Watch Committees set up in every
  area

36
Committee of Public Safety

• 6th April 1793
• Set up to supervise, for Convention, the
  executive.
• Given its own funds
• 100,000 livres to pay agents
• 100,000 livre for secret purposes
• At first middle men were elected - Jacque Danton
  (1759-1794)
• Committee of General Security
• Set up to fight the War abroad.

37
The Mountain Takes Over

• Population of Paris was still not happy
• Inflation due to war paper money.
• Made use of by the Mountain - whose main
  difference with the Girondists was that they
  would work with the mob.
• May/June 2 1793 New insurrection
• Mob demanded the expulsion of the Girondist
  members.
• The Mountain seizes control in the Convention.
• They passed a new Democratic Constitution - June
  22
• On hold until the war was over.
• Appointed a new Committee of Public Safety- June
  1793
• This body was to rule France for the next year.

38
The Rule of the Committee for Public Safety July
1793-July 1794
A ruthless and effective government Convention
and ministers official government, but CPS had
all power.

• from the Mountain
• Herault de Sechelles - a noble
• Jeanbon Saint-Andre - Protestant pastor
• Saint Just - wanted a Spartan state
• Couthon - a follower of Robespierre
• Prieur, of the Marne
• from the Marais
• Barere de Viezac
• Robert Lindet

• added in July
• Maximilien Robespierre (1753-1794)Not a dictator
  - a lawyer from Arras
• Principles were everything, Men nothing.
• Influenced by Rousseau and his ideas on virtue.
• added in August
• Lazare Carnot (1753-1823) - in charge of military
  
• Prieur, of the Cote d'Or
• added in September
• Billaud-Varrenne
• Collot d'Herbois - the only mob orator
• -both were known as men of blood

39
Problems Facing the Committee for Public Safety

• Counter revolt and the war with Europe
• i.e. same as before June takeover
• Dealt with the war - by military effectiveness
  and the internal revolt with the terror
• Aimed to restructure society in the most
  revolutionary manner
• National mission against evil inside and outside
  France.

40
Total War

• CPS dealt with military threat by use of total
  war
• Whole country was put on a war footing (cf. small
  ancien regime armies)
• Carnot led the effort
• 23 August 1793 the levee en masse
• Conscripted males into the army
• Planned economy to supply the war to aid the
  poor and keep their support.
• September 17 Maximum price rules established.
• Assignats stopped falling in value in year of CPS
  control.
• By Spring 1794 an Army of 800,000
• Largest ever assembled, until then, by European
  power.
• Citizen army, fighting for ideals, as opposed to
  its opposing armies, made up of serfs.

41
The Reign of Terror or the Republic of Virtue

• Revolts around France
• July 13 1793 Marat, a radical killed by Charlotte
  Corday - made revolutionaries feel threatened.
• Height of Terror from Fall 1793 to July 1794
• Marie-Antoinette Royal Family,
• Aristocrats
• Girondists,
• 1794 moves to provinces and includes peasants and
  sans-cullottes, then in Spring 1794 even includes
  republicans like Danton
• CPS also opposing even more extreme groups from
  among sans-cullotes
• known as Hebertists
• June 10 - Law of 22 Prairal
• conviction without evidence was now allowed
• Large increase in numbers killed in last month of
  Terror.
• Terror fiercest in those areas of rebellion
  Paris circa. 25,000-40,000 killed/300,000
  arrested - It was intentional,

42
The New Culture

• Fashions
• Followed Roman and/or sans-cullotish style.
• New Calendar
• Convention began dating form Year One when it
  abolished the Monarchy.
• A system of new months adopted on November 10th
  1793Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor, Vendemiaire,
  Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose,
  Germinal, Floreal, Prairal
• Beginning from Sept 22, 1792, Day after monarchy
  abolished.
• Every 10th day as rest day (not good for workers)
• Aim was to blot out the cycle of Sundays and
  Saint's days
• It was part of dechristianisation effort.

43
New Religion

• Revolution had been anti-clerical from the start
• November 1793
• The Convention outlawed the worship of God
• Notre Dame made a Temple to Reason
• ceremonies were conducted by the Commune of
  Paris.
• November 10 Cult of Reason begun
• Alienated Christians Made direct efforts to close
  Churches throughout France.
• Dechristianisation opposed by Robespierre
• Toleration of Catholics was ordered by CPS under
  his orders.
• Robespierre thought this not sufficient as
  effective religion.
• May 7 1794 Cult of the Supreme Being proclaimed
• Deism cultic festivals celebrating republican
  virtues - humanity, liberty etc.
• June 8 Robespierre leads a massive public
  Festival of Supreme Being.
• Emphasizes the attempt to restructure the whole
  civilization.

44
Reaction and the Rise of Napoleon

• The Thermidorean Reaction (1795-1799)
• The Reign of Terror
• Was not popular in the long run
• It was genuinely terrifying - it got out of hand
  and malicious accusations were made
• episode of the rafts at Nantes and 2000 killed
• Politicians feared for their own heads when
  Robespierre made a threatening speech on July
  26th
• Robespierre
• Condemned to the Guillotine in the Convention
• 9th of Thermidor (July 27th 1794)
• executed July 28th 1794

45
The New Government - The Directory

• The Directory
• The Directory was a 5 man executive body
• Aim was to avoid dictatorship and excessive
  democracy.
• Four-year period of lack of strong government and
  a series of coup d'etats.
• People in control were again rich bourgeois
  liberals
• Girondist deputies allowed to take seats
• Paris Commune outlawed
• Law of 22 Prairal revoked
• People involved in the Terror were now attacked
• the White Terroreconomic liberalism revived
  inflation
• A frivolous culture came into being
• fashions etc. Salons re-opened
• There was also a revival of Catholicism
• Cult of reason and the new calendar were kept.

46
1795 August 22 - Constitution of the Year III

• First formally constituted Republic.
• property and wealth, not birth were now
  important.
• Peasants now were a major landowning group in
  society.
• Sans-cullottes were removed from political life.
• Riots by the poor were now put down
• October 1795 - a Paris mob was put down.
• Napoleon commanded the cannon.
• Poor had been victims of the Terror so some loss
  of fervor for revolution.

47
Political pressures on the Directory

• Pressure from the left, from old Jacobins there
  were food riots.
• Strong movements to have the Monarchy restored
• Monarchists won a majority in the election of
  1797
• Directory staged a coup against them, supported
  by Napoleon
• Problem for Monarchists was when Louis (XVII),
  the son of Louis XVI died.
• New legitimate heir wanted to restore the 1789
  constitution
• Not acceptable to the Peasants, the moderate
  Middle Class, or to Napoleon.
• To keep control Directory increasingly depended
  on the Army - opens way to Napoleon.

48
Expansion and Empire

• The Military expansion begun under the convention
  continued, with help of CPS's war economy - great
  new generals had been brought to the fore in
  eight of Napoleons marshals.
• March 1795 - Peace concluded with Prussia and
  Spain but war continued with GB and Austria.
• Directory dependent on the military for stability
  

49
Military Successes under the Directory

• Under the Directory
• Military expansion begun under the convention
  continued
• with help of CPS's war economy - great new
  generals had been brought to the fore - inc. 8 of
  Napoleons future marshals - as old officer class
  went into exile.
• March 1795
• Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war
  continued with GB and Austria.
• Directory was dependent on the military for
  stability at home and success abroad.
• One of most successful Generals was Napoleon.
• First Triumph in defending Toulon in 1793
• He appealed to many, disgusted with the
  Directory, who looked for authority from above.

50
Summing Up the French Revolution

• Three Periods
• Liberal Revolution 1789-1792
• Estates General - Nat. Assem. - Nat. Const. Assem
  - -Legislative Assembly
• Radical Revolution 1792-1794
• The Convention - Comm. Pub. Safety
• Thermidorean Reaction 1794-1799
• The Directory
• Achievements of French Revolution
• Liberal Rev
• end of Feudalism
• Made the people important in politics
• The old order was never re-established
• Radical Rev.
• National army, Idea of a Nation at war
• Metric system (Convention) Abolishes Slavery in
  Colonies (Nap. rescinds)
• In General
• In idea of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity- leads
  to nationalism
• Problems of French Revolution
• It did not produce a stable government